The year 1911 is etched indelibly in Chinese history as the dawn of the Xinhai Revolution, which toppled over two millennia of imperial rule and set the stage for the modern Chinese republic. While much attention is focused on the political upheavals led by elite revolutionaries and military figures like Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shikai, an equally compelling and often overlooked story unfolded in the rural heartlands of Henan province. Here, a grassroots armed uprising led by a peasant leader named Bai Lang challenged feudal oppression and imperialist interference, carving out a three-year struggle that intertwined with the broader revolutionary currents sweeping China. This article explores the origins, development, and legacy of this remarkable peasant rebellion, situating it within the tumultuous context of early 20th-century China.

Historical Context: The Tumultuous Climate of Late Qing Henan

To fully appreciate the Baofeng-Lushan uprising, one must understand the socioeconomic and political landscape of Henan province in the twilight years of the Qing dynasty. Henan’s rural communities were emblematic of the widespread agrarian distress afflicting much of China. By the early 1900s, an overwhelming 70 to 80 percent of agricultural land in regions like Baofeng and Lushan was controlled by landlords, who extracted exorbitant rents—often exceeding 60 percent of the harvest—from tenant farmers. This system of feudal exploitation was compounded by predatory usury; peasants borrowing silver faced monthly interest rates of up to 30 percent, while those borrowing grain owed interest rates as high as 50 percent per season.

The Qing government’s fiscal policies further intensified rural suffering. Heavy land taxes, often collected by corrupt local officials who pocketed substantial portions, along with numerous other levies and forced labor obligations to landlords and bureaucrats, left peasants suffocated under an unbearable burden. Natural disasters exacerbated the crisis: in 1911, a devastating hailstorm struck Baofeng and Lushan, destroying crops and livestock and plunging already impoverished farmers into deeper misery.

This combination of economic hardship, social injustice, and natural calamity created a combustible environment ripe for rebellion. The sharp polarization between the impoverished peasantry and the privileged landlord class sharpened class antagonisms, setting the stage for armed resistance.

The Rise of Bai Lang: From Landowner to Peasant Rebel Leader

Amid this backdrop, Bai Lang emerged as an unlikely revolutionary figure. Born in 1873 in the village of Daliu in Baofeng County, Bai Lang hailed from a landlord family owning approximately 200 acres of land. Despite his relatively privileged origins, Bai’s life took a tumultuous turn in 1908 when he was falsely accused and imprisoned. His family was forced to sell land to secure his release, and this experience exposed him to the precariousness of rural life and the harsh realities faced by common people.

Following his release, Bai Lang worked in various trades—serving as a soldier, salt trader, and ironworker—bringing him into close contact with impoverished peasants and workers. These experiences radicalized Bai, transforming him into a leader committed to challenging the feudal order that oppressed his community.

In October 1911, just as the Xinhai Revolution was igniting across China, Bai Lang openly declared rebellion. He organized a small armed band initially comprising only two or three dozen impoverished peasants, coal miners, craftsmen, and some dismissed soldiers. Their weaponry was rudimentary: aside from one modern rifle, the rest were homemade firearms and traditional large knives. This lack of sophisticated arms earned the group the nickname “Dumb Cannon Squad,” underscoring their grassroots and improvisational nature.

Early Battles and the Expansion of the Uprising

The fledgling rebel force wasted no time in striking against local landlord militias. In November 1911, Bai Lang’s unit joined forces with another rebel band led by Zhang Qun to attack landlord forces at Zhangguanying near Lushan, close to Yexian. Despite initial losses—over 80 men killed, including Zhang Qun, and Bai Lang himself wounded—the rebellion did not falter.

By April 1912, Bai Lang had regrouped with a core force of 20 to 30 men and launched a successful ambush at Jiaomaling, northeast of Baofeng. There, they seized over ten modern rifles from the bodyguards of Zhang Litang, Baofeng’s outgoing magistrate. The rebels soon allied with another insurgent group under Gao Yongcheng, winning multiple engagements against the local government troops led by Yexian magistrate Wen Shaoliang. These victories confined government forces to their walled cities and emboldened the uprising.

The rebellion grew as disparate bands of armed peasants and workers around Baofeng and Lushan took up arms in increasing numbers. The local Qing administration struggled to contain the unrest, resorting to deceptive offers of amnesty to rebel leaders—tactics that led to the betrayal and assassination of some insurgent commanders. Bai Lang, however, saw through these ruses and refused to surrender. Instead, he led his forces northward to capture Shengu Town in Yuzhou , then moved south to establish a guerrilla base at Muzu Gorge in Wuyang County. From this stronghold, his forces operated across the borderlands of Henan, Hubei, Anhui, Shaanxi, and Gansu provinces.

Ideology and Popular Support: “Strike the Rich, Aid the Poor”

Unlike many rural uprisings that were purely reactive or localized, Bai Lang’s rebellion bore the unmistakable imprint of the broader democratic and anti-imperialist ideals of the 1911 Revolution. Influenced by bourgeois revolutionary parties, the uprising adopted slogans such as “Strike the rich to aid the poor,” signaling a commitment to social justice and wealth redistribution.

This ideological stance resonated deeply with the peasantry. As the rebels advanced, they confiscated grain, money, clothing, and jewelry from landlords and wealthy merchants and redistributed these goods among the poor. Moreover, Bai Lang’s forces maintained strict discipline, refraining from looting or harming civilians, which garnered widespread popular support. Folk songs and ballads praising Bai Lang and his army circulated throughout the region, further bolstering their legitimacy.

The situation deteriorated further when Yuan Shikai seized power in 1912, betraying the revolution by consolidating authoritarian rule under the new Republic of China. Yuan’s regime intensified exploitation and repression, causing the peasantry’s plight to worsen. In Henan, it was estimated that eight or nine out of ten people could barely survive. This deepening desperation swelled the ranks of Bai Lang’s forces, which grew from a few dozen to several thousand within a year.

Organizational Challenges and the Nature of the Rebel Army

Despite its increasing strength and popular backing, Bai Lang’s insurgent army remained a loosely organized militia. The force lacked formal military structure and standardized units. Instead, it was composed of varying-sized contingents known as “poles,” each led by a local commander whose name became the unit’s identifier. These “pole heads” commanded mounted and foot soldiers but operated without a unified command hierarchy or official regimental designations.

This decentralized structure allowed flexibility in guerrilla warfare, enabling the rebels to conduct rapid raids and evade government forces. However, it also limited the army’s capacity to launch sustained large-scale operations or formalize governance in liberated territories.

The Broader Revolutionary Significance: Anti-Yuan and Anti-Imperialist Struggle

While the Baofeng-Lushan uprising was fundamentally a peasant revolt, it became deeply intertwined with the political struggles of the early Republican era. Following the fall of the Qing dynasty, Yuan Shikai’s betrayal of the revolution and assumption of dictatorial powers sparked widespread resistance. Bai Lang’s forces aligned themselves with anti-Yuan republican factions, particularly supporting Sun Yat-sen’s “Second Revolution” in 1913, an armed campaign to overthrow Yuan’s regime.

The uprising also embodied anti-imperialist sentiments. Foreign powers continued to exert influence over China’s economy and politics, often supporting Yuan’s government to protect their interests. Bai Lang’s rebellion thus stood as a symbol of resistance not only against feudal landlords and corrupt officials but also against foreign imperialist domination.

The rebels’ three-year campaign spread across five provinces—Henan, Hubei, Anhui, Shaanxi, and Gansu—making it one of the largest and most prolonged peasant uprisings during this revolutionary period.

The Demise and Legacy of Bai Lang’s Uprising

Ultimately, Bai Lang’s forces could not withstand the superior firepower and organization of the Beiyang Army, the military force loyal to Yuan Shikai and later warlords. The uprising was brutally suppressed by 1914, marking the end of this chapter of rural resistance.

Despite its defeat, the Baofeng-Lushan uprising left an indelible mark on the revolutionary history of modern China. It complemented the urban and elite-led revolutions by demonstrating the potent agency of rural peasants and workers in the struggle for social and political change. The rebellion’s emphasis on social justice, redistribution, and anti-imperialism foreshadowed themes that would reemerge in later revolutionary movements, including the Chinese Communist Party’s campaigns in the 1920s and beyond.

Moreover, Bai Lang’s leadership challenged traditional class divisions, showing that even a landlord-turned-rebel could harness popular discontent and mobilize a diverse coalition against entrenched powers.

Conclusion: Remembering a Forgotten Insurrection

The Baofeng-Lushan peasant uprising of 1911-1914 stands as a vivid testament to the complexities of China’s revolutionary era. It highlights how local grievances, when combined with broader ideological currents, can ignite sustained resistance that shapes national history. Though overshadowed by the more famous figures and events of the Xinhai Revolution, Bai Lang and his followers played a crucial role in challenging feudal oppression, supporting republican ideals, and resisting imperialist encroachment.

As China continues to reflect on its revolutionary past, the story of the Baofeng-Lushan uprising offers valuable insights into the grassroots struggles that underpinned the country’s transformation. It reminds us that revolutions are not only made by generals and politicians but also by farmers, miners, and craftsmen who rise up to demand justice and dignity.