The Contenders for Han Dynasty’s Highest Honor

In the sixth year of Emperor Gaozu’s reign (201 BCE), a pivotal moment unfolded in the newly established Han Dynasty. Having recently consolidated power after defeating Xiang Yu, Liu Bang faced the delicate task of recognizing his most valuable supporters. The emperor ordered the enfeoffment of 29 marquises, but an even more contentious question remained – how to rank these nobles by their contributions to the dynasty’s founding.

Four exceptional figures emerged as leading candidates for the title of “First Merit Subject of Han.” Zhang Liang, the brilliant strategist whom Liu Bang had praised as capable of “planning strategies within a command tent and determining victories a thousand miles away,” stood out for his intellectual contributions. The emperor had offered Zhang the extraordinary privilege of selecting any territory in Qi for a 30,000-household fief – triple the standard maximum.

Military hero Cao Can presented another strong claim. With 10,600 households in his fief, he held the largest enfeoffment by quantity. Battle records showed Cao participating in over 70 engagements, capturing two kingdoms and 122 counties – unmatched battlefield achievements that made him the soldiers’ favorite.

Zhou Bo, enfeoffed with 8,100 households, ranked third in land grants but first in Liu Bang’s trust. The emperor would later confide to Empress Lü that “the one who can stabilize the Liu family must be Bo,” indicating profound faith in this general’s loyalty.

Finally, Xiao He, the administrative genius who had managed the entire Guanzhong region during the war, represented the civilian counterpoint to these military leaders. Liu Bang had already stirred controversy by defending Xiao’s contributions, famously comparing other officers to “hunting dogs” while calling Xiao the “hunter” who directed them.

The Emperor’s Dilemma: Military Glory vs Governing Skill

When Liu Bang consulted his ministers about ranking the marquises, a clear consensus emerged favoring Cao Can based on traditional military metrics. The officers argued passionately that Cao’s tangible battlefield accomplishments – cities taken, enemies defeated, territories secured – made him the undeniable first hero. This put the emperor in a difficult position, as his personal preference leaned strongly toward Xiao He.

The tension revealed a fundamental divide in how different factions valued contributions to the empire’s founding. Military leaders naturally emphasized combat achievements, while Liu Bang increasingly prioritized governance capabilities suitable for peacetime administration. This conflict between recognizing past service and selecting future leadership would require delicate handling.

Enter E Qianqiu, an official who provided the rhetorical solution Liu Bang needed. E argued persuasively that while Cao’s victories represented “momentary merits” (一旦之功), Xiao’s logistical support constituted “eternal merits” (万世之功). By ensuring steady troop reinforcements and grain supplies throughout the four-year war, Xiao had enabled all other successes. This framing allowed Liu Bang to override the generals’ preferences while maintaining philosophical consistency.

Extraordinary Honors for an Extraordinary Minister

Liu Bang seized E Qianqiu’s argument to justify unprecedented honors for Xiao He. The emperor decreed that Xiao could:
– Wear shoes and carry a sword in court (剑履上殿) – privileges normally reserved for the sovereign
– Approach the throne without the customary hurried steps (入朝不趋) – a mark of supreme dignity
– Receive an additional 2,000 households beyond his initial enfeoffment

Furthermore, Liu Bang elevated Xiao’s entire family, enfeoffing multiple relatives as marquises on the same day. These extraordinary distinctions marked Xiao He not just as first among equals, but as a minister of singular standing.

The decision carried profound implications. By elevating an administrator over warriors, Liu Bang signaled the empire’s transition from conquest to governance. Xiao’s expertise in legal systems and bureaucratic management – honed as a county clerk before the rebellion – would prove far more valuable in peacetime than another general’s sword arm.

The Perils of Power: Xiao He’s Survival Strategies

Being first minister brought tremendous risks alongside honors. As early as 204 BCE, during the war’s most desperate phase, Liu Bang had grown suspicious of Xiao’s growing authority over the rear territories. A perceptive advisor named Bao Sheng warned Xiao that the emperor’s frequent “comfort missions” actually signaled distrust of his power base.

Xiao responded brilliantly, dispatching all eligible male relatives to serve at the front – effectively providing hostages to guarantee his loyalty. This move not only reassured Liu Bang but demonstrated Xiao’s political acumen in navigating the emperor’s paranoia.

Even in death, Xiao maintained this cautious approach. When Emperor Hui visited the dying statesman to ask about a successor, Xiao artfully replied, “No one knows your ministers better than the ruler” (知臣莫如主). Only when the emperor explicitly suggested Cao Can did Xiao endorse the choice, thus mending their long rivalry while avoiding any appearance of presumptuousness.

Xiao’s prudence extended to personal affairs. He deliberately purchased only modest, unfortified properties in remote areas, explaining that if descendants proved virtuous they would appreciate his frugality; if unworthy, the humble estates wouldn’t tempt powerful confiscators. This epitomized his lifelong philosophy of avoiding ostentation that might provoke imperial jealousy.

The Lasting Legacy of a Founding Partnership

Xiao He’s elevation reflected more than personal favoritism. Liu Bang recognized that consolidating the empire required different skills than winning it. While Zhang Liang offered masterful strategies and Cao Can delivered battlefield triumphs, only Xiao possessed the administrative vision to transform rebel territory into a functioning state.

His work preserving Qin legal codes (minus the harshest provisions) and retaining experienced bureaucrats created crucial continuity. The famous “Three Articles” simplified laws for popular appeal, but Xiao’s deeper institutional reforms established governance frameworks that endured for centuries.

The partnership between Liu Bang and Xiao He also demonstrated how personal bonds shaped imperial politics. Their pre-rebellion friendship in Pei County created trust that outsider advisors like Zhang Liang couldn’t match. This local network – including fellow Pei veterans like Cao Can and Fan Kuai – formed the dynasty’s core power structure.

Ultimately, Xiao He’s story illuminates the Han founding’s central paradox: military force created the empire, but only civil governance could sustain it. By choosing an administrator as his first minister, Liu Bang planted seeds for four centuries of Han rule – making Xiao He’s “eternal merits” truly live up to their name.