The Strategic Chessboard of Ancient China

The early 3rd century AD witnessed one of history’s most fascinating geopolitical struggles as three rival states – Wei, Shu, and Wu – vied for supremacy in divided China. At the heart of this conflict lay control of the Yangtze River basin, where Liu Bei’s capture of Yizhou (modern Sichuan) in 214 AD dramatically shifted the balance of power. This conquest gave Shu Han control of the Yangtze’s upper reaches, while Sun Quan’s Wu kingdom held the downstream regions.

The geographical reality created an uncomfortable dynamic for Sun Quan. Whoever controlled the upstream positions held a natural advantage – whether drawing water, washing dishes, or more strategic military movements. This tension would spark one of the most consequential territorial disputes of the Three Kingdoms period, centered on the prized Jing Province.

The Jing Province Controversy

The ownership of Jing Province became the flashpoint between the two allies-turned-rivals. Historically governed by Liu Biao, the province’s succession followed contemporary customs where regional authority passed to offspring. After Liu Biao’s death, his son Liu Qi rightfully assumed control as Inspector of Jing Province, with Liu Bei serving as his guardian and later acting governor after Liu Qi’s demise.

Sun Quan’s claim to the entire province represented what Liu Bei’s camp viewed as flawed logic. While Wu forces had occupied parts of Jiangxia and Nan commanderies after the Battle of Red Cliffs, Liu Bei had only borrowed portions of Nan Commandery – not the entire province. The disagreement escalated when Liu Bei, preoccupied with plans to conquer Liang Province, dismissed Sun Quan’s demands with a vague promise to return Jing after securing Liang.

The Road to Hanzhong

Tensions reached boiling point in 215 AD when Sun Quan ordered Lü Meng to attack three Jing Province commanderies. As both sides mobilized forces, an unexpected development altered the strategic landscape – Cao Cao’s western campaign against Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. This forced Liu Bei to negotiate, resulting in the Xiang River Agreement that divided Jing Province between the allies.

With the eastern front temporarily stabilized, both rulers turned their attention elsewhere. Sun Quan launched his disastrous Hefei campaign against Zhang Liao’s vastly outnumbered defenders, earning his infamous “Sun One-Hundred-Thousand” moniker after suffering humiliating defeats. Meanwhile, Liu Bei set his sights on Hanzhong – the mountainous northern gateway to Sichuan.

The Hanzhong Campaign

Cao Cao’s puzzling decision to withdraw from Hanzhong after its capture, leaving only Xiahou Yuan and Zhang He as garrison commanders, presented Liu Bei with a golden opportunity. His advisor Fa Zheng articulated the strategic imperative: “With Hanzhong as our base, we can accumulate provisions, await favorable opportunities, and ideally eliminate Cao Cao. At minimum, we can expand our territory.”

The campaign began poorly in 217 AD with defeats at Xiabian, but Liu Bei persisted. The turning point came at the Battle of Mount Dingjun in 219 AD, where veteran general Huang Zhong achieved immortality by slaying Xiahou Yuan. This victory demonstrated Liu Bei’s growing military sophistication – coordinating night attacks, feints, and exploiting enemy overconfidence.

When Cao Cao arrived with reinforcements months later, he found Liu Bei firmly entrenched. The warlord’s famous “chicken rib” comment symbolized his reluctant withdrawal, marking Liu Bei’s first major territorial gain from Cao Cao himself. This hard-won victory allowed Liu Bei to proclaim himself King of Hanzhong, achieving parity with Cao Cao’s King of Wei title.

The Domino Effect: Guan Yu’s Northern Campaign

Liu Bei’s triumph triggered a chain reaction. His elevation prompted the promotion of his top generals – Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, Ma Chao, and Huang Zhong. In July 219 AD, Guan Yu launched his ambitious northern campaign against Fan Castle without explicit orders, reflecting his semi-autonomous status in Jing Province.

Initial successes stunned the Central Plains. The “Drowning of the Seven Armies” in August saw Yu Jin captured and Pang De executed, with Guan Yu’s reputation reaching its zenith. As Chen Shou recorded in Records of the Three Kingdoms: “Yu’s might shook China.” Rumors even spread of Cao Cao considering relocating the capital to avoid Guan Yu’s advance.

The Fall of Jing Province

Guan Yu’s moment of glory proved fleeting. Cao Cao and Sun Quan formed an unlikely alliance against their common threat. While Guan Yu battled Cao Ren and Xu Huang at Fan Castle, Lü Meng executed his legendary “White-Clothed Crossing” – disguising troops as merchants to infiltrate and capture Jing Province’s key cities.

The defections of Mi Fang and Fu Shiren sealed Guan Yu’s fate. Isolated and outmaneuvered, the legendary general retreated to Maicheng before his capture and execution in late 219 AD. This catastrophic loss deprived Liu Bei of his most loyal commander, his strategic position in Jing Province, and ultimately the resources needed to reunify China.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Hanzhong campaign represented the apex of Liu Bei’s military career – his first decisive victory over Cao Cao after decades of struggle. Yet this triumph contained the seeds of subsequent disaster. Guan Yu’s aggressive northern campaign, undertaken without proper coordination, exposed the structural weaknesses in Liu Bei’s realm: overreliance on individual commanders and insufficient strategic depth in leadership talent.

Historians continue debating whether Liu Bei could have prevented the Jing Province disaster. The absence of a political officer like Zhuge Liang to temper Guan Yu’s decisions, coupled with communication lags across the vast distances of ancient China, created vulnerabilities that Sun Quan expertly exploited.

The twin events of 219 AD – Liu Bei’s victory at Hanzhong and Guan Yu’s defeat at Jing Province – marked the turning point in Three Kingdoms history. They set the stage for the subsequent Battle of Yiling and cemented the tripartite division of China that would last for decades. For Liu Bei personally, Hanzhong represented his greatest military achievement, while the loss of Guan Yu and Jing Province foreshadowed the limitations of Shu Han’s eventual restoration.