The Historical Context of Zheng Chenggong’s Northern Expedition

In the summer of 1659, Zheng Chenggong (also known as Koxinga), the Ming loyalist warlord and maritime power, launched an ambitious campaign to capture Nanjing, the former southern capital of the Ming Dynasty. This offensive, known as the Northern Expedition, was part of his broader strategy to restore the Ming Dynasty and expel the Manchu-led Qing forces from China.

By this time, the Qing had consolidated control over much of China, but resistance persisted in the south. Zheng, who commanded a formidable navy and controlled key coastal territories, saw an opportunity as Qing forces were preoccupied with suppressing remnants of Ming resistance in the southwest. His campaign up the Yangtze River initially met with stunning success—towns and garrisons surrendered or defected, and his forces swiftly captured key cities like Zhenjiang and threatened Nanjing itself.

The Siege of Nanjing: A Campaign of Missed Opportunities

Zheng’s forces arrived outside Nanjing in early July 1659, but instead of launching an immediate assault, he chose to lay siege, hoping to starve the city into submission. This hesitation proved fatal. The Qing defenders, led by Governor-General Lang Tingzuo and generals like Liang Huafeng and Guan Xiaozhong, used the delay to reinforce the city and prepare a counterattack.

On July 22, Qing forces launched a surprise attack on Zheng’s forward positions. The Ming troops, caught unprepared and reportedly distracted by fishing along the river, were quickly overwhelmed. Key commanders, including Yu Xin, were captured, and Zheng’s defensive lines collapsed. Despite hasty redeployments, Zheng’s forces were outmaneuvered. A second Qing assault on July 24 shattered his remaining troops, leading to the death or capture of several high-ranking officers, including the esteemed general Gan Hui.

Tactical Errors and Strategic Failures

Zheng’s defeat was not merely a matter of bad luck. Historians have identified several critical mistakes:

1. Overconfidence and Complacency – Zheng underestimated Qing resilience, assuming Nanjing would fall easily. His troops, rather than maintaining vigilance, grew lax, allowing Qing forces to exploit their disorganization.
2. Failure to Secure Surrounding Areas – Unlike his advisor Zhang Huangyan, who urged him to cut off Qing reinforcements by seizing nearby towns, Zheng focused solely on Nanjing, leaving his flanks exposed.
3. Poor Coordination Between Land and Naval Forces – Zheng’s navy, though dominant on the Yangtze, was not effectively integrated into the siege, limiting his ability to respond to Qing counterattacks.

The Aftermath: Retreat and Long-Term Consequences

Following the disastrous battle, Zheng withdrew his forces, abandoning previously captured cities like Zhenjiang. His attempt to salvage the campaign by attacking Chongming Island failed, and by August, his army was in full retreat.

The Qing victory at Nanjing marked the end of Zheng’s most serious challenge to their rule. While he would later turn his attention to expelling the Dutch from Taiwan, his failure at Nanjing ensured that the Qing would remain unchallenged in mainland China.

Legacy and Historical Debate

Historians remain divided on Zheng’s campaign. Some praise it as a bold, if flawed, attempt to restore the Ming, while others criticize it as reckless. Key takeaways include:

– Popular Support for Ming Loyalists – The rapid defection of towns along the Yangtze suggests significant anti-Qing sentiment.
– The Cost of Disunity – Zheng’s refusal to coordinate with other Ming loyalists, such as Li Dingguo in the southwest, weakened the broader resistance.
– Qing Retribution and Coastal Evacuation – The scare prompted the Qing to implement the brutal “Great Clearance,” forcibly evacuating coastal populations to prevent future rebellions.

Conclusion: A Campaign of What Might Have Been

Zheng Chenggong’s Nanjing campaign was a turning point in the Ming-Qing conflict. Had he acted decisively, history might have taken a different course. Instead, his errors handed the Qing a decisive victory, ensuring their dominance over China for centuries to come. Yet, his defiance remains a symbol of resistance, celebrated in both Chinese and Taiwanese historiography.