Introduction: A Crucial Moment in East Asian History

In the summer of 1683, a pivotal naval confrontation unfolded in the Taiwan Strait that would determine the fate of Taiwan and solidify Qing dynasty control over the island. This battle, fought between the Qing imperial navy led by Shi Lang and the forces loyal to the Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning under Liu Guoxuan, was marked by strategic brilliance, fierce combat, and the intervention of natural forces. The Battle of Penghu stands out not only as a key military victory but also as an event with profound historical consequences, decisively ending Ming resistance and bringing Taiwan under Qing rule. This article explores the background, key events, cultural impacts, and legacy of this monumental battle.

Historical Context: The Struggle for Taiwan and the Ming Loyalists

Taiwan in the 17th century was a contested frontier between the fading Ming loyalists and the rising Qing dynasty. After the fall of the Ming capital in 1644, loyalist forces retreated southward and eventually established the Kingdom of Tungning on Taiwan under the leadership of Zheng Chenggong . This regime served as a bastion of Ming resistance against Qing rule and maintained control over the island and surrounding waters.

Following Koxinga’s death, his successors continued to resist Qing unification efforts. The Qing dynasty, under Emperor Kangxi, was determined to bring Taiwan under imperial control to eliminate the last significant holdout of Ming loyalism and secure the maritime routes crucial for trade and defense.

Shi Lang, a former Ming admiral who defected to the Qing, was appointed to lead a massive naval expedition against Taiwan. His personal history—marked by enmity with the Zheng regime and a deep commitment to the Qing cause—added a dramatic dimension to the campaign. In 1683, with a fleet of over 300 vessels and 24,000 sailors, Shi Lang embarked from Dongshan Island to confront the Zheng navy in a decisive showdown.

Strategic Importance of Penghu: The Key to Taiwan

Before attacking Taiwan itself, Shi Lang’s first objective was to capture the Penghu archipelago . Strategically located in the Taiwan Strait, Penghu was considered the “key to the southeast”—a vital maritime stronghold controlling access to Taiwan. Its name derives from the paradoxical nature of its harbors: turbulent seas outside, yet calm waters within, making it an ideal defensive position.

By seizing Penghu, the Qing navy would gain a crucial foothold enabling a sustained campaign against Taiwan’s main island. Conversely, the Zheng forces recognized the importance of defending Penghu, with Liu Guoxuan assembling a fleet of 20,000 men to hold the islands and prevent a Qing invasion.

The Initial Engagement: June 15–16, 1683

On June 15, 1683, Qing forces arrived off the coast of Penghu and formed battle lines. The following morning, Shi Lang launched his initial attack. His strategy involved sending fast warships as vanguards to disrupt the Zheng formation. However, adverse wind conditions and tactical miscalculations thwarted these early attempts. The Zheng navy took advantage by flanking Shi Lang’s forces from both sides, nearly encircling them.

In the thick of the fighting, Shi Lang personally led a daring charge, engaging the enemy fleet in a chaotic melee on the open sea. The battle inflicted casualties on both sides, but the Qing navy suffered heavier losses. Most notably, Shi Lang was wounded by a bullet that penetrated his right eye—a grievous injury that could have ended his command. Forced to withdraw, the Qing fleet retreated to regroup for a renewed assault.

The Strategic Gains: Holding Outer Islands and Preparing for the Final Assault

In the days following the initial combat, skirmishes continued around the periphery of Penghu. The Qing navy gradually secured key outer islands such as Waihujingyu and Tongpanyu, establishing firm control over the surrounding waters. These footholds served as vital staging points and logistic bases, enabling Shi Lang to repair his fleet and replenish supplies.

After a brief respite, Shi Lang prepared to launch a comprehensive offensive on June 22. His fleet was divided into three main squadrons: the left wing of 50 ships tasked with feinting an attack on Niuxin Bay, the right wing of 50 ships aiming to seize Jilongyu, and the central force of 56 ships, led by Shi Lang himself, targeting the strategic Mazu Temple area in Penghu Harbor. An additional reserve of 80 ships stood ready to reinforce or exploit breakthroughs.

The Climactic Battle: June 22, 1683

As dawn broke, Shi Lang stood at the prow of his flagship, contemplating the culmination of years of struggle—not just for military victory but for personal vengeance and the fulfillment of his lifelong ambitions. At the appointed hour, a single cannon shot marked the beginning of a massive naval engagement, with hundreds of ships advancing toward Penghu harbor.

However, nature intervened dramatically. A sudden typhoon arose, with fierce northwesterly winds favoring the Zheng forces. Seizing the moment, Liu Guoxuan launched a vigorous counterattack. The battle erupted into a maelstrom of cannon fire and rain of arrows, illuminating the sea with flashes of flame. According to Shi Lang’s battle report, the scene resembled “rain falling in the form of cannonballs and arrows.” The Qing right-wing commander Zhu Tiangui was killed by artillery, further demoralizing Qing forces.

Despite the initial setback, Shi Lang demonstrated tactical adaptability. He reorganized his fleet into innovative formations known as the “Three Waves” and “Five Plum Blossom” arrays—complex maritime battle tactics involving successive coordinated attacks by ship groups. Though the exact details of these formations remain uncertain, the strategy allowed Qing ships to counterattack effectively.

By midday, the wind shifted suddenly to the south, turning the tide in Qing’s favor. With the advantage of a tailwind, Shi Lang raised his battle sword as a signal, and the entire Qing fleet, including the reserve ships, surged forward in a unified assault. Outnumbered and outmaneuvered, the Zheng fleet began to crumble under the overwhelming pressure.

Aftermath: The Collapse of the Zheng Navy and Qing Victory

With the battle turning decisively against them, Liu Guoxuan recognized the futility of continued resistance. Leading his personal guard, he retreated to Taiwan’s main island, leaving the Penghu garrisons to surrender. The Qing victory was staggering: over 12,000 Zheng troops were killed, more than 5,000 captured, and nearly 190 Zheng ships were destroyed or seized. Qing casualties totaled around 2,000 men, with no ships lost—a remarkable disparity in a naval engagement of such scale.

Shi Lang’s injury—a lost right eye—was a personal cost, but the military success was clear and comprehensive. The battle effectively annihilated the Zheng naval power and opened the way for a Qing invasion of Taiwan.

Reasons for Zheng Defeat: Command Decisions and Tactical Missteps

Several factors contributed to the Zheng defeat despite their defensive advantages. Penghu was heavily fortified with coastal batteries, and the Zheng forces were well-prepared for a siege. However, Liu Guoxuan’s decision to avoid engaging the Qing fleet before it formed battle lines proved costly. Some advisors had urged him to strike the Qing navy while it was still crossing the strait, but Liu chose to rely on his strong coastal defenses and awaited the Qing fleet’s approach.

This delay allowed Shi Lang to establish beachheads and consolidate control over outer islands. Moreover, the chaotic nature of naval combat at the time limited the effectiveness of shore cannons during close-quarters fighting. Once the battle became a melee on the open sea, Zheng forces lost their artillery advantage.

The unexpected typhoon and sudden wind shifts further undermined the Zheng position, underscoring the role of environmental factors in naval warfare.

The Broader Impact: The Fall of Taiwan and Qing Consolidation

The fall of Penghu was a decisive blow to the Zheng regime. Situated only about 50 kilometers from Taiwan’s main island, the archipelago’s loss meant Taiwan’s eastern defenses collapsed, leaving the island vulnerable to direct Qing assault. Moreover, Qing control of Penghu provided a vital logistics and staging area, allowing Shi Lang to regroup and prepare for the final invasion of Taiwan.

Shortly after the Battle of Penghu, Qing forces launched a successful campaign to take Taiwan, ending Ming loyalist resistance and incorporating the island into the Qing Empire. This victory not only expanded Qing territorial control but also reconfigured regional power dynamics in East Asia, enhancing Qing maritime strength and securing vital trade routes.

Legacy: The Battle’s Place in World Naval History and Chinese Memory

The Battle of Penghu is notable in global naval history for the scale of forces involved and the lopsided casualties. It exemplifies early modern naval warfare in East Asia, combining traditional ship-to-ship combat with artillery and the challenges posed by natural elements such as typhoons.

Shi Lang’s leadership and tactical innovation during the battle have been studied as a case of effective command under adversity. The victory also symbolized the transition from Ming to Qing dominance and the consolidation of imperial authority over Taiwan—a legacy that shaped Chinese history for centuries.

Today, the battle is remembered as a turning point that ended the era of Ming loyalist seaborne resistance and integrated Taiwan more fully into the Qing administrative and cultural sphere. It also highlights the strategic importance of maritime control in East Asian geopolitics, a theme that continues to resonate in modern times.

Conclusion: A Defining Clash that Shaped Taiwan’s Destiny

The Battle of Penghu in 1683 was far more than a naval engagement; it was a climactic moment in the struggle for supremacy in East Asia. The strategic vision of Shi Lang, unyielding determination, and the vicissitudes of fate converged to deliver a crushing defeat to the Ming loyalists. This victory paved the way for Qing rule over Taiwan, altering the course of the island’s history and influencing the geopolitical landscape of the region.

By examining this battle’s intricate details, commanders’ decisions, and the broader historical context, we gain insight into the complexities of early modern naval warfare and the enduring impact of this dramatic conflict on East Asian history.