The late 17th century witnessed a dramatic confrontation between the Qing Empire and the Dzungar Khanate, a conflict that would shape the fate of Inner Asia for decades to come. Among the pivotal clashes was the Battle of Ulan Butung in 1690, a confrontation marked by strategic brilliance, logistical challenges, and the interplay of imperial ambitions. This article delves into the historical context, key events, cultural impacts, and enduring legacy of the Battle of Ulan Butung, illuminating its significance in the broader tapestry of Qing and Mongol history.

Historical Background: Qing Dynasty and the Dzungar Khanate

The Qing dynasty , established by the Manchus, was in the process of consolidating its rule over China and expanding its influence into Central and Inner Asia. The empire was a formidable power, yet still vulnerable to threats along its vast frontiers. To the northwest lay the Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Oirat Mongol tribes under the leadership of Galdan Boshugtu Khan.

Galdan, a charismatic and ambitious leader, sought to restore the glory of the Mongol Empire and expand his domain southwards into territories under Qing influence. His forces had already achieved significant victories, including a triumph at the Urga River, which emboldened him to push further into Qing-held lands. The Qing court, under Emperor Kangxi, recognized the existential threat posed by the Dzungars and mobilized its military to counter the advance.

The Prelude to Battle: The March Southward

Following the victory at the Urga River, Galdan’s forces surged south, sweeping across southern Mongolia with remarkable speed. The Qing Empire was portrayed by Galdan as a “giant with an iron exterior but a hollow core,” vulnerable to the resurgence of Mongol power. The Dzungar army’s advance was relentless until it was finally checked by the Great Wall, a formidable but increasingly symbolic barrier situated just 800 li from Beijing.

News of the Dzungar advance caused alarm throughout the Qing capital. Beijing was placed under martial law; all government offices were closed, and the price of staple foods soared, reflecting both panic and scarcity. Emperor Kangxi mobilized his elite forces, including the Manchu and Han banners stationed in Beijing, as well as requesting reinforcements from the Khorchin Mongols. Despite these efforts, the Qing forces from the northeast did not arrive in time to join the battle due to the great distances involved.

Qing Military Strategy: Division and Deployment

In the summer of 1690, the Qing assembled an army of approximately 100,000 troops, primarily composed of the elite Eight Banner forces, supplemented by local militia units serving as reserves. The army was divided into two main columns to confront the Dzungar threat.

The left column, led by Prince Fuquan, was accompanied by the emperor’s eldest son, Crown Prince Yinreng, and comprised 30,000 troops. They advanced from Gubeikou, an important pass through the Great Wall. The right column, numbering 20,000 soldiers, was commanded by Prince Changning, with Princes Yabu and Oza serving as deputies. This force moved out from Xifengkou. Emperor Kangxi himself took the rear guard, overseeing and inspiring his troops.

Before departure, Kangxi composed a poem to bolster morale, revealing his intent to decisively defeat the Dzungars and secure the empire’s borders once and for all. The poem reflected the emperor’s aspirations for unity and peace in the vast frontier regions, underscoring the political and symbolic stakes of the campaign.

The Emperor’s Illness and Its Consequences

Tragically, Kangxi’s personal involvement in the campaign was cut short. Shortly after leaving Beijing, he fell ill with a severe cold that developed into a high fever and delirium by August 27, 1690. This forced him to abandon the campaign and return to the capital for treatment.

While the emperor’s absence did not critically undermine the Qing military effort—command structures remained intact, and the army continued to fight—his illness had profound political implications. Kangxi summoned his two sons, the 13-year-old Prince Yunzhi and the 17-year-old Crown Prince Yinreng, to the palace to see him during his sickness.

Historical records note that while Yunzhi displayed appropriate concern and filial piety, Yinreng behaved indifferently, almost as if sleepwalking through the solemnity of the moment. Kangxi later remembered this lack of apparent loyalty and affection with deep disappointment, interpreting it as a sign of Yinreng’s unsuitability as heir. This incident sowed the seeds for future dynastic turmoil and palace intrigue that would shake the Qing court in the decades to follow.

Logistical Challenges: The Qing Army’s Struggles on the Steppe

Meanwhile, the Qing forces faced considerable hardships on the vast Mongolian steppe. Prince Fuquan’s left column struggled with supply issues during the long march. Although provisions were adequate, the scarcity of water became a critical problem. The troops were forced to dig wells along the way to obtain water, a slow and exhausting process that delayed their progress significantly.

What should have been an eight-day march stretched to twelve days, exhausting the soldiers and horses alike by the time they reached the Tuoligen River, where they established a large camp with forty encampments spread over sixty li .

Reconnaissance missions to locate the Dzungar forces proved frustrating. Qing scouts, unfamiliar with the open and featureless steppe, became disoriented and failed to detect the nearby enemy. This contrasted sharply with Galdan’s intimate knowledge of the terrain and his keen intelligence network.

The Dzungar Defensive Position: Ulan Butung Hill

Galdan’s forces had taken up a defensive position on Ulan Butung Hill, a modest elevation compared to China’s famous sacred mountains but strategically advantageous. The hill was easy to defend and difficult to assault, surrounded by deep ravines and dense woods.

The Dzungars fortified their position using a novel tactic known as the “Camel Wall.” This involved barricading their camp with camels tied together, laden with sandbags to serve as makeshift armor. Soldiers would take cover behind this living shield, firing upon approaching Qing troops. While cruel to the animals, this innovative defensive method was effective and baffled Qing forces unfamiliar with such tactics.

The Dzungars’ use of the terrain and unconventional defenses showcased their adaptability and military ingenuity. It also underscored the challenges the Qing army faced in fighting a mobile, steppe-based adversary skilled in guerrilla and defensive warfare.

The Battle of Ulan Butung: Clash of Titans

The battle itself, fought in late August 1690, was a hard-fought engagement that tested the mettle of both armies. The Qing forces launched repeated assaults on the Dzungar positions but were repelled by the well-entrenched defenders. The “Camel Wall” and the natural defenses of the hill nullified much of the Qing army’s numerical superiority.

Despite their initial setbacks, the Qing troops persisted, utilizing artillery and coordinated attacks. The prolonged combat inflicted significant casualties on both sides, but neither achieved a decisive breakthrough.

The battle ended inconclusively, with Galdan’s forces eventually withdrawing to avoid being encircled. Although the Qing did not annihilate the Dzungar army, they succeeded in halting its advance toward Beijing and demonstrated their ability to project power deep into the steppe.

Cultural and Political Impacts

The Battle of Ulan Butung was more than a military engagement; it was a cultural encounter between two great Eurasian powers vying for dominance over Inner Asia. The campaign highlighted the Qing dynasty’s commitment to securing its frontiers and integrating diverse peoples into its imperial structure.

Moreover, the battle exposed weaknesses in Qing logistics and intelligence, prompting reforms in military organization and frontier management. The experience gained influenced subsequent campaigns against the Dzungars, eventually leading to the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in the mid-18th century.

On a symbolic level, the battle reinforced the Qing emperor’s image as the protector of the empire’s borders, even as it revealed the vulnerabilities inherent in ruling a vast and ethnically diverse realm.

Legacy: The Road to Qing Consolidation of Inner Asia

The Battle of Ulan Butung marked a critical moment in the protracted struggle between the Qing Empire and the Dzungar Khanate. It exposed the limits of Qing military power but also demonstrated the dynasty’s resilience and determination.

In the decades following the battle, the Qing launched further expeditions that gradually eroded Dzungar strength. By the 1750s, the Qing had decisively defeated the Dzungars, incorporating their lands into the empire and reshaping the political landscape of Central Asia.

The battle also had lasting implications for Qing imperial politics, particularly concerning succession issues raised by the emperor’s illness and his sons’ conduct. These internal dynamics would influence the stability of the dynasty and its governance in the years ahead.

Conclusion

The Battle of Ulan Butung stands as a testament to the complexities of warfare on the Eurasian steppe and the intricate interplay of military strategy, logistics, and imperial politics. It was a clash between two formidable powers, each striving for dominance over a contested frontier.

While not a decisive victory, the battle halted the Dzungar advance and set the stage for the eventual Qing consolidation of Inner Asia. It also offers rich insights into the challenges of empire-building, the nature of frontier conflicts, and the human dimensions of historical change.

For historians and enthusiasts alike, the Battle of Ulan Butung remains a fascinating episode that illuminates the turbulent and transformative era of Qing expansion and Mongol resurgence.