The Fragile Foundations of a New Nation

When six British colonies federated to form the Commonwealth of Australia on January 1, 1901, few could have predicted the political drama that would unfold in the fledgling nation’s first fifteen years. The new federal parliament brought together strong-willed leaders from across the continent, each carrying their colonial experiences and competing visions for Australia’s future. This period witnessed no fewer than seven changes of government, the dramatic rise of the Labor Party, and the implementation of policies that would shape Australian identity for generations.

The inaugural parliament featured three distinct political groupings: Edmund Barton’s Protectionist government supporters; George Reid’s Free Trade opposition; and Chris Watson’s Labor Party. Remarkably, all five ministers in Barton’s first cabinet had previously served as colonial premiers – John Forrest (WA), Charles Kingston (SA), George Turner (Vic), William Lyne (NSW), and the brilliant orator Alfred Deakin. Managing this “government of premiers” required Barton’s considerable diplomatic skills, as historian Geoffrey Blainey later observed: “It was like conducting an orchestra where every player thought they should be the conductor.”

The Rise of Party Politics and Early Challenges

Australia’s early federal politics operated in a strange twilight between colonial-era personal factions and modern party discipline. The Protectionists and Free Traders remained loose coalitions, while Labor pioneered rigid caucus control – members swore to vote as a bloc on key issues, though could exercise freedom on other matters. This discipline gave Labor disproportionate influence as the balance of power, supporting Barton’s government while nurturing its own ambitions to govern.

Two defining policies emerged from Barton’s administration, both reflecting the overwhelming white supremacist consensus of the era. The Immigration Restriction Act (1901) implemented the “White Australia Policy” through a notorious dictation test – officials could require migrants to write 50 words in any European language (later expanded to “any prescribed language”). Pacific Island Labourers Acts (1901-1906) began deporting Kanakas (Pacific Islander laborers) from Queensland’s sugar plantations despite industry warnings this would destroy the sector. Through protective tariffs and white labor incentives, the industry not only survived but thrived, with sugar production increasing fivefold by 1939.

The Labor Experiment and Political Instability

The political landscape shifted dramatically in 1904 when Chris Watson formed the world’s first national Labor government – albeit lasting just four months. Watson’s stable leadership and reasonable demeanor surprised critics who expected radicalism. His government fell over amendments to the landmark Conciliation and Arbitration Bill, which established Australia’s unique system of industrial courts. This began a period of extraordinary volatility with five governments in five years:

1. Watson Labor (April-August 1904)
2. Reid-McLean Free Trade (1904-1905)
3. Deakin Protectionist (1905-1908)
4. Fisher Labor (1908-1909)
5. Deakin-Cook “Fusion” (1909-1910)

The instability stemmed from three near-equal parliamentary blocs maneuvering for advantage. Deakin’s political brilliance sustained minority governments through tactical alliances, but his 1909 “Fusion” with former Free Traders alienated progressive supporters. This backroom deal, satirized in cartoons as an unnatural political marriage, paved the way for Labor’s Andrew Fisher to win decisive majorities in 1910 and 1914.

Institutional Innovations and Constitutional Crises

Fisher’s governments (1908-09, 1910-13, 1914-15) revolutionized Australian governance. Implementing strict Labor caucus rules, ministers were elected by the parliamentary party rather than appointed by the Prime Minister. Landmark achievements included establishing the Commonwealth Bank (1911) and expanding federal powers. However, the 1913 election produced a historic deadlock – Joseph Cook’s Liberals held the House by one seat while Labor controlled the Senate.

When the Senate twice rejected government bills, Cook invoked Section 57 of the Constitution, triggering Australia’s first double dissolution election. Governor-General Ronald Munro Ferguson’s controversial decision to approve the dissolution was vindicated when voters returned Fisher with clear majorities in both houses just as World War I began.

Legacy of the Formative Years

This turbulent period established enduring patterns in Australian politics:

1. The two-party system emerged from the Fusion of non-Labor forces
2. Labor demonstrated it could responsibly govern, shedding radical image
3. White Australia became entrenched as bipartisan policy
4. Federal arbitration shaped industrial relations for decades
5. Constitutional precedents were set regarding Senate powers

As the nation faced the cataclysm of World War I under William Morris Hughes’ leadership, these early battles over Australia’s economic and racial identity faded from memory. Yet their consequences would reverberate throughout the 20th century, proving that in nation-building as in geology, the most significant shaping often occurs during the formative pressures.