The year 1865 marked a pivotal juncture in the history of the late Qing dynasty, signaling both political upheaval at the highest levels of imperial power and the dawn of China’s modern industrial military capabilities. Against a backdrop of internal strife, foreign pressure, and fragmented leadership, this year witnessed the collapse of a unique dual-power system at the Qing court and the tragic demise of a key military leader, while more significantly, it saw the establishment of the first Western-style military-industrial enterprise in China—the Jiangnan Arsenal in Shanghai. This event catalyzed the Qing dynasty’s efforts to modernize and reform, laying the foundation for China’s self-strengthening movement amid the challenges of the 19th century.

Political Turmoil and the Decline of Dual Regency

The political landscape of the Qing dynasty in 1865 was volatile and transitional. One of the most notable political events was the removal of Prince Gong’s title as an “Imperial Prince in Council” by the powerful Empress Dowager Cixi. Prince Gong had previously shared power with the two Empress Dowagers—Cixi and Ci’an—in a unique dual regency system that sought to balance power during the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor. This “two-headed” governance model began to unravel in 1865, signaling a shift in the dynamics of Qing imperial politics.

Prince Gong had been a crucial figure in Qing attempts to modernize the empire and manage foreign relations, especially after the humiliations of the Opium Wars and the Taiping Rebellion. His fall from grace effectively centralized power further in the hands of Empress Dowager Cixi, who would become the dominant political force in late Qing China. This consolidation had complex consequences for Qing governance, as Cixi’s regency was marked by conservatism and court intrigues, but it also highlighted the vulnerabilities and factionalism within the Qing ruling elite.

The Death of Senggelinqin and the Shift in Military Leadership

Another significant event in 1865 was the death of Senggelinqin, a prominent Manchu military leader, who was killed in battle at Gaolouzhai. Senggelinqin’s death was a blow to the Qing’s Manchu military establishment and symbolized the declining influence of traditional Manchu power structures within the military hierarchy.

With Senggelinqin’s passing, Empress Dowager Cixi was compelled to rely more heavily on Han Chinese military leaders such as Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang. These generals had risen through their merit and ability to organize effective forces against the Taiping Rebellion and other internal threats. Their prominence marked a shift from dominance by hereditary Manchu elites to a more pragmatic military leadership based on competence and modernization efforts.

The Failure of the Osborn Fleet: Lessons in Sovereignty and Modernization

The Qing dynasty’s initial attempts to modernize its navy and military technology, however, were fraught with challenges and setbacks. Beginning in 1862, Prince Gong sought to purchase a modern fleet directly from Britain through the Qing customs official Li Taiguo. The plan was to acquire advanced Western warships to strengthen China’s naval capabilities.

However, Li Taiguo had his own ambitions. Instead of acting as a straightforward agent for the Qing government, he used the imperial funds to create a privately controlled fleet under British command, led by the British naval officer Sherard Osborn. The contract signed in London in January 1863 stipulated that all foreign-style vessels and Chinese ships employing foreign captains would be under Osborn’s exclusive command, effectively placing the Qing navy under foreign control.

Moreover, the contract granted Li Taiguo the authority to control communications between the Qing government and Osborn, meaning that even imperial orders could be filtered or withheld. This arrangement, if allowed to persist, would have rendered the Qing dynasty’s naval forces subordinate not to the emperor but to a foreign official and a Chinese customs officer with personal ambitions.

When Prince Gong realized the extent of this subversion, much of the funding had already been spent, and over 600 British officers and sailors were recruited. In September 1863, Osborn’s fleet arrived in Tianjin, effectively pressuring the Qing court to accept a fait accompli or lose the entire investment.

This crisis, known as the “Osborn Fleet Incident,” became a diplomatic and internal debacle. With mediation from the American diplomat Anson Burlingame, the fleet was eventually returned to Britain and sold at a loss. The Qing government’s financial loss exceeded 699,000 taels of silver, a staggering sum at the time. This failure exposed the dangers of unchecked foreign influence and the complexities of modernization under imperial rule.

The Birth of the Jiangnan Arsenal: A New Direction in Self-Strengthening

The humiliating experience of the Osborn Fleet incident served as a powerful catalyst for change. It underscored the urgent need for the Qing dynasty to develop its own industrial and military production capabilities, free from foreign control.

In response, local officials and provincial governors took matters into their own hands, overcoming the central government’s inertia. The turning point came when Ding Richang, an official supported by Li Hongzhang, proposed the establishment of a domestic arms manufacturing facility that could produce modern weapons and ships using Western technology.

The Qing government’s central body responsible for foreign affairs and modernization—the Zongli Yamen—enthusiastically supported Ding’s proposal, recognizing the strategic necessity of such an enterprise. This endorsement led to the founding of the Jiangnan Arsenal in Shanghai in 1865, under the joint leadership and patronage of Li Hongzhang and Zeng Guofan.

The Jiangnan Arsenal was the first Western-style military-industrial complex in late Qing China. It was designed to manufacture modern firearms, cannons, and steam-powered ships, incorporating imported machinery and technical expertise from the West. More than a mere factory, it represented the institutional beginning of the Self-Strengthening Movement, a policy aimed at adopting Western technology to revitalize China’s military and industry while preserving Confucian social and political order.

The Role of Li Hongzhang and Zeng Guofan: Visionaries of Modernization

The establishment of Jiangnan Arsenal cannot be understood without appreciating the roles of Li Hongzhang and Zeng Guofan, two towering figures of the late Qing dynasty and architects of China’s early modernization efforts.

Both men had witnessed firsthand the devastating effectiveness of Western weaponry during the Taiping Rebellion, a massive civil war that nearly toppled the Qing dynasty. In 1862, Li Hongzhang observed Western guns and artillery in Shanghai and wrote to Zeng Guofan about the superiority of Western explosive shells, calling them “miraculous technology.”

Li expressed a humble but determined attitude toward learning from Western technology, writing that he was “earnestly and patiently learning some secret methods of the Westerners.” This openness was revolutionary for Qing officials of the time, who had long viewed Western knowledge with suspicion.

Zeng Guofan, too, engaged in efforts to harness Western expertise, enlisting the help of Chinese students who had studied in the United States to assist in procuring advanced manufacturing equipment and weapons. Their collaboration led directly to the blueprint and founding of the Jiangnan Arsenal.

Historical Context: The Self-Strengthening Movement and China’s Industrial Awakening

The founding of Jiangnan Arsenal was a key milestone within the broader Self-Strengthening Movement that emerged in the mid-19th century. This movement was a pragmatic response by Qing officials to the twin threats of internal rebellion and foreign imperialism.

Following the Opium Wars and the Taiping Rebellion, China’s traditional military and administrative systems were proven inadequate. The Self-Strengthening Movement aimed to adopt Western industrial technology, modern military hardware, and organizational methods while maintaining Qing political and cultural traditions.

The Jiangnan Arsenal embodied this synthesis: it sought to manufacture modern weaponry domestically, reduce dependence on foreign arms imports, and cultivate technical skills among Chinese workers and engineers. It also served as a model for other regional arsenals and factories that followed, including the Tianjin Machine Works and the Fuzhou Arsenal.

While the Self-Strengthening Movement had mixed results and faced resistance from conservative factions, its industrial foundations laid the groundwork for China’s eventual modernization in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Cultural and Political Legacy of the Jiangnan Arsenal

The Jiangnan Arsenal’s significance extended beyond weapons manufacture. It was a symbol of China’s first serious attempt to embrace industrial modernization and technological innovation on its own terms.

The Arsenal fostered the growth of a new class of skilled laborers, engineers, and technicians trained in both Chinese and Western methods, sowing the seeds for China’s modern industrial workforce. It also represented a shift in power dynamics, as provincial leaders like Li Hongzhang gained greater autonomy and influence through their control of modern military and industrial resources.

Politically, the Arsenal reinforced the idea that modernization required active state involvement and coordination. It illustrated the limits of relying solely on private or foreign initiatives for national defense and development.

However, the Arsenal also reflected the tensions of the era: balancing tradition with innovation, central authority with provincial initiative, and national sovereignty with the pressures of foreign imperialism. Despite these contradictions, its establishment marked a turning point in late Qing history.

Conclusion: The 1865 Turning Point in Qing China’s Modernization

The events of 1865 encapsulate the complex challenges faced by the Qing dynasty in its final century. The political upheaval at court, the demise of traditional military leaders, and the costly failure of the Osborn Fleet all underscored the urgent need for reform and modernization.

In this crucible, the founding of the Jiangnan Arsenal stands out as a beacon of hope and pragmatic adaptation. It marked the Qing dynasty’s first concrete step toward building an indigenous military-industrial base, initiating a process that would shape China’s industrial and military development for decades to come.

While the late Qing era was marked by contradictions and struggles, the legacy of 1865 and the Jiangnan Arsenal remains a testament to China’s early efforts to navigate the turbulent waters of modernization and sovereignty in a rapidly changing world.