The Decline of Latin and Rise of Vernacular Languages

The 17th and 18th centuries witnessed a profound linguistic revolution that would fundamentally reshape European intellectual life. As supernatural explanations of the natural world faded, a new cultural space emerged – the public sphere. Though the concept of “public” existed previously, its modern meaning as the source of cultural and political legitimacy only crystallized during this period. Robert Boyle, the pioneering scientist who lacked formal university training, exemplified this shift when he wrote in 1665 about “the public’s favorable reception” of his work – notably choosing to write in English rather than Latin.

This linguistic transformation occurred with remarkable speed. In 1650, French erotic literature still appeared in Latin, yet by 1700 over 90% of French books used the vernacular. Similar patterns emerged across Europe: Latin’s share of German publications plummeted from 67% in 1650 to just 4% by 1800. This vernacular revolution created new possibilities for public discourse, as knowledge became accessible beyond the Latin-educated elite. The consequences would ripple through every aspect of European society.

The Literacy Revolution and Its Social Impact

The shift to vernacular languages coincided with rising literacy rates across Europe. Between the 1680s and 1780s, French male literacy jumped from 29% to 47%, while female literacy doubled from 14% to 27%. Regional variations were striking – by 1789, northeastern France approached universal literacy, with Simon Schama later noting that late 18th-century French literacy rates exceeded late 20th-century American ones.

Protestant regions generally led this educational transformation, driven by the Reformation’s emphasis on personal Bible reading. In London alone, 132 parish charity schools educated over 5,000 children by 1734. Even Catholic regions saw educational advances through missionary groups like the Christian Brothers, who persuaded Louis XIV to mandate Catholic schooling for children aged 7-14. By 1770, Austria declared education “should always be a state matter,” reflecting growing secular control over what had been ecclesiastical domains.

The Reading Revolution and Cultural Democratization

Rising literacy sparked what historians call the “reading revolution.” By the mid-18th century, reading had become what one German clergyman described as “an addiction” surpassing tobacco or coffee. Booksellers like James Lackington marveled at how even poor farmers now read novels like Tom Jones rather than telling supernatural tales. The numbers confirm this transformation: English book production soared from 400 titles per decade in the early 1500s to 56,000 in the 1790s.

This explosion of print created new reading habits. Where readers once meticulously studied few expensive texts, they now consumed many affordable books more casually. Private libraries swelled from dozens to thousands of volumes. Innovative institutions emerged to meet demand: reading clubs, subscription libraries, and commercial lending libraries proliferated across Europe. By 1800, London had at least 100 lending libraries, while Leipzig boasted 9 and Frankfurt 18.

The Novel and the Democratization of Literature

The 18th century witnessed the birth of the modern novel as the quintessential public sphere genre. While prose fiction had ancient roots, the novel emerged as a distinct form combining the substance of chivalric romances with realistic contemporary settings. France initially led this development with works like La Princesse de Clèves (1678), though moral concerns led to a 1737 ban on novels.

English authors soon dominated the field with landmark works like Robinson Crusoe (1719), Gulliver’s Travels (1726), and Tom Jones (1749). The novel’s focus on domestic life and contemporary society opened unprecedented opportunities for female writers and readers. Aphra Behn became Europe’s first professional woman writer in the 1680s, while the 1750-1770 period saw women authors outnumber men in English fiction for 11 of those 20 years. Conservative critics lamented both the perceived decline in literary quality and this feminization of readership.

The Standardization of European Culture

Similar democratizing trends appeared in music and art. The symphony emerged as the musical counterpart to the novel, evolving from opera overtures to independent compositions. By 1800, over 16,000 symphonies had been written, with Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven elevating the form. Public concerts became common, with the first paid-admission performance held in London in 1672.

The visual arts also engaged the growing public sphere. France’s Salon exhibitions, revived in 1699, attracted 15,000 visitors in the 1750s and 30,000 by the 1780s. Art criticism emerged as a new profession, with critics like Étienne La Font de Saint Yenne arguing that true artistic judgment belonged to the impartial public rather than elite connoisseurs.

The Paradox of Public Opinion

By the late 18th century, the abstract concept of “the public” had become the supreme arbiter of cultural value. Friedrich Schiller’s 1784 declaration – “The public is now everything to me…I belong to it alone” – epitomized this new cultural authority. Yet this idealized public sphere contained contradictions. As Schiller himself demonstrated by eventually accepting aristocratic patronage, the supposedly impartial public often reflected existing power structures.

Moreover, the expansion of literacy and print culture created new forms of cultural hierarchy. While more people could participate in public discourse, distinctions emerged between “serious” and “popular” reading, between professional critics and amateur enthusiasts. The public sphere promised universal access but in practice remained stratified by education, gender, and class.

Legacy of the Early Public Sphere

The 17th-18th century transformation of European culture established patterns that continue to shape modern societies. The shift from Latin to vernacular languages made knowledge more widely accessible, while rising literacy created mass reading publics. New cultural forms like the novel and symphony reflected and reinforced these changes, as did institutions like lending libraries and public exhibitions.

Perhaps most significantly, this period established the idea that cultural legitimacy derives from public judgment rather than aristocratic patronage or ecclesiastical authority. Though never fully realized, this ideal of a rational, inclusive public sphere remains central to modern democratic societies. The tensions first evident in this era – between elite and popular culture, between commercial and critical success, between universal ideals and practical exclusions – continue to animate cultural debates today.