The Dragon’s Southern Neighbor: Vietnam Under Qing Suzerainty

The relationship between Vietnam and China’s Qing dynasty represented one of East Asia’s most enduring tributary systems. In the mid-17th century, as the Qing consolidated their control over China, they turned their attention to stabilizing relations with neighboring states. The year 1661 marked a significant moment in this process when the Shunzhi Emperor formally recognized Lê Duy Kỳ as “King of Annam,” affirming Vietnam’s status as a tributary state while acknowledging its internal governance. This diplomatic recognition established the framework for Sino-Vietnamese relations that would persist for nearly two centuries.

Vietnam during this period existed as a distinct civilization with its own imperial system, though one that operated within the Chinese world order. The Vietnamese emperors maintained their court rituals, administrative systems, and cultural traditions while periodically sending tribute missions to Beijing. This delicate balance between autonomy and subordination characterized the relationship between the two states, with Vietnam skillfully navigating its position as both a sovereign kingdom and a tributary state.

The Rise of a New Dynasty: Emperor Gia Long’s Ascendancy

The early 19th century witnessed dramatic changes in Vietnam’s political landscape. The year 1802 saw Nguyễn Phúc Ánh, later known as Emperor Gia Long, complete his decades-long campaign to unify Vietnam. His victory over the Tây Sơn rebels marked the establishment of the Nguyễn dynasty, which would rule Vietnam until 1945. The emperor chose the reign name Gia Long, combining elements from the names of the southern and northern regions he had unified, symbolizing his achievement in bringing together the “Three Realms” of Vietnam.

Gia Long’s path to power involved complex international maneuvering. During his struggle against the Tây Sơn rebels, he sought assistance from European powers, most significantly through Catholic missionaries who served as intermediaries. This outreach led to negotiations with King Louis XVI of France, resulting in a treaty that promised territorial concessions in exchange for military support. Although substantial French assistance never materialized—the French Revolution intervened before significant aid could be dispatched—these initial contacts established France’s foothold in Vietnamese affairs and planted the seeds for future colonial ambitions.

Cultural Clashes and Religious Tensions

The decades following Gia Long’s reign witnessed growing tensions between Vietnam and Western powers, particularly France. The three emperors who succeeded Gia Long maintained deeply skeptical attitudes toward both French political ambitions and Catholic missionary activities. These concerns were not unfounded—throughout the 1820s to 1850s, Vietnam experienced increasing incidents involving Christian missionaries and their converts, mirroring similar “missionary cases” occurring simultaneously in China.

These religious conflicts reflected broader cultural and political anxieties. Vietnamese rulers viewed Christianity as a disruptive force that challenged traditional Confucian social structures and threatened state authority. Meanwhile, French officials and missionaries increasingly saw Vietnam as a field for both religious conversion and imperial expansion. This collision of worldviews created a volatile situation that would eventually erupt into open conflict.

The French Advance: From Influence to Intervention

The 1850s and 1860s marked a turning point in Franco-Vietnamese relations. While France was primarily focused on its military operations against China during the Second Opium War, French naval forces simultaneously began exerting pressure on Vietnam. By the summer of 1862, this pressure culminated in Vietnam’s forced acceptance of a treaty with France that included indemnity payments, territorial concessions, and a crucial provision: Vietnam pledged not to cede any territory to any power other than France.

French ambitions continued to grow throughout the 1860s. Within five years of the initial treaty, France had annexed all of Cochinchina under Vietnamese control. This expansionist agenda reached a critical point in 1873 when French forces seized Hanoi under a manufactured pretext, prompting the Vietnamese court to seek military assistance from an unexpected source.

The Black Flag Commander: Liu Yongfu’s Unlikely Career

The Vietnamese response to the French capture of Hanoi came in the form of a remarkable military leader: Liu Yongfu. Born in Qinzhou, Guangdong, and later settling in Shangsi, Guangxi, Liu’s background was anything but conventional. He had initially been involved with the Taiping Rebellion—the massive civil war that ravaged southern China—and after its collapse, he followed remnants of the rebel forces into Vietnam.

After the death of his commander Wu Kun, Liu took command of approximately two hundred men and established himself in Vietnam’s Cao Bằng Province. His forces became known as the Black Flag Army, named for the distinctive black banners they carried into battle. Despite his relatively small stature, Liu proved to be a formidable leader—brave, charismatic, strategically adept, and skilled at maintaining the loyalty of his diverse troops.

The Vietnamese court under Emperor Tự Đức recognized Liu’s military talents and formally incorporated his forces into their defense structure. Legends even suggest he married a Vietnamese princess, though historical evidence for this remains uncertain. What is certain is that the Vietnamese government granted him significant authority, including the title “Deputy Military Commander of Three Provinces” and permission to collect taxes in the commercially vibrant area of Bảo Thắng to support his troops.

The Battle of Hanoi: An Unexpected Victory

In late 1873, Liu Yongfu and his Black Flag Army faced their first major test against French forces. When French officer Francis Garnier led troops to capture Hanoi, Liu’s forces engaged them outside the city’s western gate. In the ensuing battle, the French found themselves unexpectedly outmatched by Liu’s tactics and his troops’ determination.

The conflict reached its dramatic conclusion when Liu’s vanguard commander Wu Fengdian pursued the retreating French forces and killed Garnier near the city gates. This victory, achieved by a Chinese-led force fighting for Vietnam against European regulars, stunned contemporary observers and temporarily halted French advances into Tonkin. The death of their commander prompted France to adopt a more cautious approach, initially pursuing diplomatic solutions rather than immediate military escalation.

The Treaty of Saigon: Reshaping Vietnam’s Sovereignty

In January 1874, France and Vietnam signed the Treaty of Saigon, which fundamentally altered their relationship. This agreement contained several crucial provisions: France formally recognized Vietnam as an independent nation ; designated Hanoi and other cities as open trading ports; secured freedom of navigation on the Red River up to Hanoi; and established French supervision over Vietnam’s foreign affairs, effectively prohibiting relationships with other nations.

For China’s Qing government, preoccupied with tensions with Japan over Taiwan, this represented a concerning development but not one that prompted immediate intervention. Instead, Beijing issued discreet instructions to the governor of Guangxi to strengthen border defenses while avoiding direct confrontation with France. Vietnam, meanwhile, found itself in an increasingly precarious position—formally independent but effectively under growing French influence.

Between Dragon and Tricolor: Vietnam’s Diplomatic Balancing Act

Faced with expanding French control, Vietnam pursued a dual strategy throughout the late 1870s. Officially, they complied with French demands while continuing to send tribute missions to Beijing, maintaining the appearance of traditional relations with China. Simultaneously, they reinforced Liu Yongfu’s position in northern Vietnam, using his Black Flag Army as a buffer against further French expansion.

This delicate balancing act reflected Vietnam’s difficult position between two powerful entities. From the French perspective, Liu Yongfu represented an obstacle to their colonial ambitions—a persistent irritant who repeatedly demonstrated his ability to frustrate European military operations despite numerous attempts to eliminate him. For Chinese officials, particularly those in southern provinces bordering Vietnam, Liu represented both a potential asset in containing French expansion and a complicating factor in relations with European powers.

The Gathering Storm: International Responses to French Expansion

By the early 1880s, the situation in Vietnam attracted increasing attention from multiple quarters. Within China, officials began advocating for a more assertive stance against French ambitions. Zeng Jize, China’s ambassador to France, sent dispatches warning that France intended to occupy northern Vietnam and establish trade routes into Yunnan province, urging that this threat not be ignored.

The Qing court responded by appointing five senior officials—including Li Hongzhang, Zuo Zongtang, and others—to coordinate policy regarding Vietnam. Among these officials, only Li Hongzhang advocated caution; the others generally favored a more confrontational approach toward France. This division reflected broader debates within China about how to respond to Western imperialism while managing multiple threats simultaneously.

Meanwhile, French activities in Vietnam continued. In 1882, French naval officer Henri Rivière led a force of 450 men to capture Hanoi—a move that France quickly reversed after six days, possibly as a tactical gesture before presenting new demands to Vietnam. This pattern of advance and temporary withdrawal characterized French strategy, keeping opponents off-balance while gradually expanding control.

Military Preparations and Diplomatic Maneuvers

As tensions escalated, both China and France began military preparations while maintaining diplomatic channels. China reassigned key officials to southern provinces: the experienced commander Zeng Guoquan was appointed acting Governor-General of Liangguang, while the formidable Cen Yuying was transferred to oversee Yunnan province. Most significantly, Li Hongzhang—despite being in mourning for his mother—was ordered to return to Tianjin to oversee military preparations and manage foreign affairs.

Chinese officials also developed strategic proposals for countering French expansion. Some advocated aligning with Germany, France’s traditional European rival, through arms purchases and diplomatic coordination. Others proposed diverting attention by appearing to focus military resources against Japan while secretly preparing operations in Vietnam. These discussions reflected the complex geopolitical calculations shaping China’s response to the crisis unfolding along its southern border.

The Black Flag’s Legacy: Symbol of Resistance

Liu Yongfu and his Black Flag Army occupy a unique place in the history of 19th-century East Asia. Their story represents several broader historical phenomena: the cross-border movements of people and forces in the aftermath of China’s civil wars; the complex interplay between formal state actors and irregular military forces; and the ways in which local conflicts became entangled with global imperial rivalries.

The Black Flag Army’s effectiveness against European forces challenged contemporary assumptions about military superiority and demonstrated that well-led, motivated troops could compete with technologically advanced opponents. Their persistence in northern Vietnam for nearly two decades made them a significant factor in Franco-Chinese relations and delayed complete French control over Tonkin until the mid-1880s.

The Unfolding Conflict: Prelude to Full-Scale War

The events of the 1870s and early 1880s established the groundwork for the Sino-French War , which would formally determine Vietnam’s fate. The patterns established during this period—French incremental advances, Chinese cautious responses, Vietnamese attempts to maintain autonomy, and the involvement of irregular forces like the Black Flag Army—would all characterize the larger conflict to come.

What began as diplomatic recognition between Qing China and Nguyen Vietnam had evolved into a multinational struggle involving European imperial ambitions, Chinese defensive concerns, Vietnamese sovereignty, and the actions of remarkable individuals like Liu Yongfu. This complex interplay of forces would ultimately lead to France establishing colonial control over Vietnam while creating lasting tensions between China and France that would influence East Asian politics for decades.

Conclusion: Vietnam’s Pivotal Century

The 19th century transformed Vietnam from a kingdom within the Chinese tributary system to a French colony, with profound consequences for its subsequent history. The period between initial French contacts under Gia Long and the escalation of tensions in the 1880s represents a critical transitional phase when multiple futures remained possible. The actions of Vietnamese emperors, French officials, Chinese diplomats, and military leaders like Liu Yongfu all shaped the eventual outcome.

This history remains relevant today as Vietnam maintains its distinct identity while navigating relationships with both China and Western nations. The legacy of 19th-century struggles for sovereignty continues to inform contemporary geopolitics in Southeast Asia, reminding us that historical patterns often echo through the centuries, even as specific circumstances evolve. The Black Flag Army may have vanished, but its story endures as testament to Vietnam’s complex position at the intersection of multiple worlds.