The Rise and Fall of Yang Yinglong

The Bozhou Campaign (1599–1600) marked the last of the “Three Great Expeditions” of the Wanli Emperor’s reign, a costly series of military campaigns that stretched Ming China’s resources to their limits. At the heart of this conflict was Yang Yinglong, the ambitious and defiant chieftain of the Bozhou Tusi (native chieftaincy) in modern-day Guizhou.

Yang inherited his position in 1573 at just 21 years old, but his rule quickly spiraled into tyranny. He flouted imperial protocol by wearing dragon-and-phoenix robes—reserved for emperors—and styled himself “Qian Sui” (千岁, “Lord of a Thousand Years”), a title implying quasi-royal status. His excesses included maintaining a harem of forcibly recruited women and castrated male servants, mirroring the Forbidden City’s inner court. By 1590, local officials and rival chieftains petitioned the Ming court, accusing Yang of treason.

The Road to Rebellion

Yang’s initial arrest in 1592 coincided with the Imjin War in Korea, where Ming forces were heavily engaged. Exploiting the empire’s desperation for troops and funds, Yang bribed officials, pledging 5,000 soldiers and 100,000 taels of silver for the Korean campaign. Temporarily freed but with his son held hostage in Chongqing, Yang returned to Bozhou—only to escalate his defiance. He murdered imperial envoys and refused further cooperation, prompting the first Ming punitive expedition in 1594.

The campaign faltered disastrously. Sichuan’s 50,000-strong force, divided into three columns, suffered ambushes in Bozhou’s mountainous terrain. Yang’s elite “Tiger Army” decimated one contingent at Lou-Shan Pass, while bureaucratic infighting led to the recall of the pro-war governor. The Ming retreated, abandoning supplies that Yang’s forces gleefully looted.

The Final Reckoning

With Korea’s war ending in 1598, the Ming redirected veterans like generals Liu Ting and Chen Lin—previously at odds during the Korean campaign—to crush Yang once and for all. In 1599, Yang struck first, sacking Qijiang and massacring civilians, but his delay allowed Li Hualong, the newly appointed supreme commander, to fortify Chongqing.

By early 1600, a 200,000-strong Ming army converged on Bozhou via eight routes. Liu Ting’s column, advancing from Qijiang, employed fire tactics to burn Yang’s forest fortifications, while Chen Lin’s troops crossed rivers on makeshift pontoon bridges. Despite setbacks—like the annihilation of a Guizhou detachment at the Wu River—the Ming closed in on Yang’s stronghold: the “impregnable” Hailongtun fortress.

The Siege of Hailongtun

Perched on cliffs with nine layered gates, Hailongtun seemed invincible. Yang even resorted to witchcraft, ordering naked women to “neutralize” Ming cannons through ritual—a futile gesture. After weeks of monsoon rains stalled progress, Chen Lin outflanked the defenses via the less-guarded rear, while Liu Ting breached the frontal earthworks.

On June 5, 1600, Ming troops stormed the inner citadel. Yang, realizing defeat, set his residence ablaze and hanged himself in the flames. His corpse was recovered by Chen Lin’s son and General Wu Guang, ending the 114-day campaign.

Legacy and Consequences

The Ming abolished Bozhou’s Tusi system, replacing it with direct rule under the遵义 (Zunyi) and 平越 (Pingyue) prefectures—a landmark in the “gaitu guiliu” (改土归流) policy of replacing tribal chiefs with bureaucrats. Yet victory came at staggering cost: 2 million taels of silver spent, exacerbating the dynasty’s financial crisis. The Wanli Emperor’s subsequent mining taxes sparked widespread revolts, while veteran officers like Liu Ting soon faced a greater threat—the rising Manchus.

Today, Hailongtun’s ruins, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, stand as a testament to this pivotal clash between centralized authority and regional autonomy. The campaign’s blend of brutal warfare, political intrigue, and cultural collision remains a defining chapter in China’s frontier history.