Introduction to the Bronze Age in Northern China

The Yanshan mountain range served as a significant cultural boundary during China’s Bronze Age, dividing distinct archaeological cultures that flourished between 2000-1000 BCE. This mountainous region witnessed the development of four major cultural complexes: the Xiajiadian Lower Culture and Weiyingzi Culture north of Yanshan, and the Datoutou Culture and Weifang Phase III Culture to the south. These cultures represent crucial chapters in understanding the early development of Chinese civilization beyond the Central Plains.

The Xiajiadian Lower Culture: Northern Yanshan’s Bronze Age Powerhouse

### Discovery and Initial Research

The Xiajiadian Lower Culture first came to scholarly attention through Japanese archaeologist Hamada Kosaku’s work in the 1920s. His excavations at the Hongshanhou site near Chifeng in 1935 initially identified what would later be recognized as Xiajiadian materials. Chinese archaeologists in the 1950s challenged early dating assumptions, and systematic work by the Inner Mongolia Archaeological Team in 1960 at Xiajiadian and Yaowangmiao sites finally distinguished the Lower from the Upper Xiajiadian cultures.

### Geographic Distribution and Settlement Patterns

This culture primarily occupied the Laoha, Daling, and Xiaoling river valleys, stretching from the Xilamulun River in the north to the Bohai Sea in the south. Its western boundary remains debated, depending on whether the Datoutou type is considered part of Xiajiadian or a separate culture.

The culture’s most striking feature is its sophisticated settlement system featuring stone-walled towns strategically located along rivers. The Yingjin-Yinhe river area alone contains 42 such settlements arranged in three clusters with clear hierarchy – from small villages to the massive 100,000 square meter Chijiayingzi center. These settlements demonstrate:

– Strategic placement on steep river bluffs 30-70m above water
– Innovative defensive architecture using natural terrain
– Multi-tiered settlement hierarchies suggesting complex social organization
– Some sites featuring rammed earth walls with exterior ditches

### Material Culture and Technological Achievements

Xiajiadian Lower Culture artifacts reveal a sophisticated Bronze Age society:

Ceramics:
– Dominated by sandy gray and brown wares (70-80%)
– Major forms: li tripods, yan steamers, ding tripods, jars, urns
– Distinctive decorative techniques: cord marks, incised patterns, appliqué bands
– Elite funerary wares feature intricate painted designs in red, white, and yellow

Metallurgy:
– Bronze artifacts include axe fittings, staff finials, ge dagger-axes
– Unique integrated bronze ge dagger-axe from Jinshouyingzi
– Gold and bronze jewelry indicates advanced metalworking

Architecture:
– Semi-subterranean round/square houses (1.9-4m diameter)
– Innovative construction: stone walls, tamped earth, adobe bricks
– Some feature white lime plaster floors and double-wall construction

### Social Organization and Belief Systems

The extensive Dashanzi cemetery (804 graves) provides remarkable insights:

– Clear spatial organization into north, central, and south sectors
– Grave goods differentiation by gender (axes for men, spindle whorls for women)
– Emerging social stratification visible in burial treatment
– Possible clan/family groupings within cemetery sectors
– Ritual practices including pig/dog sacrifices

Religious life appears complex, with:
– Possible ritual structures at Xiaochengzi Xiangzhangzi
– Mountain-top ceremonial sites
– Painted pottery designs possibly representing totems or deities

### Chronological Development

Archaeologists divide the culture into three phases:

Early Phase (c. 2000-1700 BCE):
– Fine cord-marked gray wares dominate
– Simple semi-subterranean dwellings
– High-collared li tripods with straight legs

Middle Phase (c. 1700-1500 BCE):
– Brown wares increase
– Stone/adobe wall construction appears
– Ceramic forms evolve but maintain basic types

Late Phase (c. 1500-1400 BCE):
– Brown wares predominate
– Double-walled structures become common
– Li tripods develop outward-flaring legs

### Cultural Interactions

The Xiajiadian Lower Culture maintained significant connections:
– Shared elements with Central Plains Erlitou culture (ceramic jue, gui vessels)
– Possible influences from Inner Mongolian Zhukaigou culture
– Connections with contemporary northeastern cultures like Gaotaoshan

The Datoutou Culture: Southern Yanshan’s Distinct Tradition

### Defining Characteristics

Centered in the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan region, the Datoutou Culture shows both similarities and differences with Xiajiadian:

Shared Features:
– Dominance of sandy tempered wares
– Similar stone tool assemblages
– Presence of painted pottery

Distinctive Elements:
– Predominance of brown wares (vs. Xiajiadian’s gray)
– Different ceramic forms (belly-li vs. cylindrical-li tripods)
– Unique burial customs (east-facing graves)
– Settlement patterns without large fortified centers

### Chronology and Development

Stratigraphy at sites like Weifang and Zhangjiayuan shows:
– Emergence from local Longshan traditions
– Contemporary with Erlitou to early Shang periods
– Radiocarbon dates clustering around 1500-1300 BCE

The Weifang Phase III Culture: Late Bronze Age Developments

Emerging after Datoutou’s decline, this culture (c. 1300-1000 BCE) shows:

– New ceramic styles featuring stiff cord marks and appliqué bands
– Possible influences from northern nomadic cultures
– Continued use of bronze and gold ornaments
– Distinctive burial practices (prone burials)

The Weiyingzi Culture: Eastern Connections

Flourishing in the Daling/Xiaoling valleys (c. 1200-800 BCE), this culture features:

– Distinctive pottery with thickened rims and high footed li
– Evidence of social stratification in burials
– Significant Shang-Zhou bronze imports
– Possible connections to early Yan state culture

Comparative Analysis of the Four Cultures

While sharing some broad Bronze Age characteristics, these cultures display important differences:

| Feature | Xiajiadian Lower | Datoutou | Weifang III | Weiyingzi |
|—————-|——————|———-|————-|———–|
| Dominant Pottery | Gray wares | Brown wares | Brown wares | Red-brown wares |
| Signature Li Form | Cylindrical | Belly-li | High-collar | Thick-rim |
| Settlement Type | Fortified towns | Villages | Villages | Mixed |
| Burial Customs | NW orientation | East-facing | Prone burials | Various |
| Metalwork | Bronze tools | Bronze jewelry | Bronze weapons | Shang imports |

Legacy and Historical Significance

These cultures represent crucial developments in northern Chinese prehistory:

– Demonstrate complex societies beyond the Central Plains
– Show early urbanization and social stratification
– Reveal extensive interregional networks
– Provide context for later Yan state development
– Illustrate diverse responses to Bronze Age technological changes

Ongoing research continues to refine our understanding of their relationships and historical roles in shaping early Chinese civilization.