The Origins of Literary Persecution in Early Qing China

When the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644-1912) consolidated power, resistance emerged not only through armed rebellions but also through intellectual dissent. Han Chinese scholars from landowning classes covertly criticized Manchu rule through historical writings and literature. Recognizing the threat of anti-Qing ideology, the imperial government instituted systematic “literary inquisition” (文字狱) – a policy of persecuting intellectuals whose works allegedly contained seditious content.

This practice had precedents in Chinese history but reached unprecedented severity under the Qing. The Manchu rulers, as ethnic minorities governing the Han majority, exhibited particular sensitivity toward any writing that challenged their legitimacy or glorified the preceding Ming dynasty (1368-1644). What began as censorship evolved into full-scale terror against the scholarly class.

Notable Cases of Literary Persecution

### The Zhuang Tinglong Case (1663)

The Kangxi Emperor’s reign (1661-1722) witnessed one of the most infamous literary persecutions involving scholar Zhuang Tinglong. He had compiled and published an unfinished Ming history manuscript that contained several provocative elements: detailed accounts of Ming-Qing conflicts, recognition of Southern Ming regimes (1644-1662) as legitimate successors rather than the Qing, and unfavorable depictions of Manchu conquest.

The government’s response was draconian:
– Execution of Zhuang’s entire clan despite his prior death (his corpse was exhumed and mutilated)
– Mass executions of everyone connected to the book – editors, printers, booksellers, and even purchasers
– Estimated several hundred deaths in total

### The Dai Mingshi Case (1711)

Another Kangxi-era persecution targeted Ming loyalist Dai Mingshi for his Nanshan Collection, which documented Southern Ming’s Yongli Emperor’s resistance (1646-1661). The work incorporated historical accounts from Fang Xiaobiao’s Yunnan-Guizhou Chronicles, another banned text. Consequences included:
– Dai’s execution by beheading
– Enslavement of Dai and Fang family members

### The Lü Liuliang Case (1729)

Under the Yongzheng Emperor (1722-1735), the case of Ming loyalist Lü Liuliang demonstrated the regime’s paranoia. Lü’s anti-Qing writings inspired disciple Zeng Jing to attempt recruiting general Yue Zhongqi for rebellion. After Yue’s betrayal and reporting to authorities:
– Lü’s corpse was exhumed and desecrated
– His son and disciples were executed
– The Lü clan was exterminated
– The emperor personally authored Great Righteousness Resolving Confusion using fabricated confessions

Cultural Impacts and Intellectual Climate

The literary inquisition created a climate of fear that reshaped Qing intellectual life:

### Self-Censorship Among Scholars

The threat of execution led to:
– Avoidance of contemporary history writing
– Focus on apolitical philological studies
– Rise of “evidential research” movement emphasizing textual analysis over philosophical discourse

### Systematic Destruction of Texts

The Qianlong Emperor’s Complete Library of the Four Treasuries (1773-1782) project served dual purposes:
1. Cultural achievement: Compiling 3,470 works across 79,018 volumes
2. Ideological purification: Identifying and destroying approximately 6,819 “subversive” texts

Notable censorship practices included:
– Complete destruction of anti-Qing works
– Selective editing of problematic passages
– Alteration of historical narratives

The Complex Legacy of Qing Literary Policies

### Preservation vs. Destruction Paradox

While the Four Treasuries preserved many ancient texts, its editorial process:
– Distorted historical records
– Erased alternative narratives
– Created gaps in China’s documentary heritage

### Modern Historical Understanding

Contemporary scholars face challenges because:
– Primary sources were deliberately altered
– Many perspectives were permanently lost
– Reconstructing complete histories requires cross-referencing with unofficial records

### Comparative Historical Context

The Qing literary inquisition shares characteristics with:
– European index of prohibited books
– Stalinist revision of historical records
– Various regimes’ suppression of dissent

Yet its combination of ethnic tension, bureaucratic thoroughness, and Confucian scholarly tradition created a uniquely systematic form of intellectual control.

Conclusion: Lessons from China’s Literary Persecution

The Qing dynasty’s literary inquisition represents one of history’s most extensive campaigns of thought control, with effects still felt in historical scholarship today. Its legacy demonstrates both the fragility of knowledge under authoritarian systems and the enduring human impulse to preserve truth against oppression. The destroyed and altered texts serve as sobering reminders of how power can reshape historical memory – and why protecting intellectual freedom remains essential for any society claiming cultural greatness.