Introduction: Unearthing the Past

The archaeological exploration of Eastern Zhou (770-256 BCE) tombs in China’s Qilu region – encompassing ancient Qi and Lu states – has revealed approximately 600-700 burial sites, with detailed records available for about 229. These discoveries provide invaluable insights into the funerary practices, social hierarchies, and cultural exchanges during this pivotal period in Chinese history. The tombs span numerous locations including the ancient capitals of Lu in Qufu and Qi in Linzi, as well as sites in Changqing, Yishui, Haiyang, and beyond.

Historical Context: The Eastern Zhou Dynasty

The Eastern Zhou period marked significant transformations in Chinese society, characterized by the decline of centralized Zhou authority and the rise of competing states. The Qilu region, home to the powerful states of Qi and Lu, became a cultural and political center where traditional Zhou rituals interacted with local customs. This era witnessed the philosophical flourishing of Confucianism in Lu and the military innovations of Qi, developments reflected in the region’s burial practices.

Classification and Characteristics of Qilu Tombs

The Qilu region’s Eastern Zhou tombs generally align with the four-category classification system used for Central Plains burials, but with distinct local variations:

– First Category: Monumental tombs featuring single “A-shaped” passageways (over 100m²) and later double “middle-shaped” passageways (like those at Linzi’s Qi capital). Notably absent are the sand-and-charcoal filled tombs found elsewhere.

– Fourth Category: Includes rare small bronze-bearing tombs under 4m², found at Qufu’s Lu capital and Tengzhou’s Xue state sites.

These classifications reveal how Qilu elites adapted Central Plains traditions while maintaining regional identity.

Major Burial Sites and Their Significance

### The Lu State Capital Cemetery at Qufu

The western cemetery of Qufu’s Lu capital contained 129 Western and Eastern Zhou tombs (31 Eastern Zhou). Divided into Group A (19 tombs) and Group B (12 tombs), these rectangular earthen pit tombs typically featured:

– Single outer and inner coffins
– Supine, extended burial posture
– Group A mostly south-facing; Group B predominantly north-facing

Tomb M58 (Group B):
– 124m² burial pit with 19m² chamber
– Outer coffin: 2.6m × 1.22m; inner coffin: 2.15m × 0.68m
– Northern orientation (10°)
– Grave goods: 9 bronze vessels, 27 pottery items, jade artifacts
– Dating: Mid-Warring States period

The distinct pottery styles between Groups A and B (Figures 8-15, 8-16) suggest different ethnic affiliations – likely Lu aristocracy versus descendants of Yin people granted to Lu rulers.

### The Qi State Capital Cemetery at Linzi

Concentrated northeast (Heyatou) and southeast (Liujiazhai, Shaoyuan village) of Linzi, these cemeteries reveal Qi’s burial evolution:

– Spring and Autumn Period: Over 20 large/medium tombs at Heyatou, attributed to Jiang clan Qi nobility
– Warring States Period: “Tian Qi Six Mausoleums” cluster near Niushan, housing Tian clan rulers

Landmark Discoveries:
– 1950s: Bronze vessels with “Guozi” inscriptions found south of “Phoenix Mound”
– 1970s: Langjiazhuang M1 – 21×19.5m moundless tomb with 17 sacrificial pits and stone-filled chamber
– 1980s: Qilu Ethylene Project tombs M4/M5 with shared mound and multiple sacrificial pits (19 and 22 respectively)

These tombs demonstrate Qi’s unique practices like surrounding the main chamber with well-equipped sacrificial pits, some containing human victims.

### Other Notable Sites

1. Huang County Bronzes (1951): 8 vessels from Spring and Autumn tombs, including inscribed examples
2. Linyi Fenghuangling (1982-83): Large tomb with 14 human sacrifices and 329 grave goods
3. Yishui Liujiadianzi (1978): Two tombs and chariot pit, possibly Ju state rulers
4. Junan Dadian (1975): Tombs with 10 human sacrifices each, Ju state nobility
5. Linzi Shangwang Cemetery (1992-93): Late Warring States “middle-shaped” tombs
6. Zhangqiu Nülangshan M1 (1990): “A-shaped” tomb with 5 sacrificial pits
7. Changqing Xianrentai (1995): 6 Shi state noble tombs, including well-preserved M5

Distinctive Burial Customs of the Qilu Region

### Orientation and Posture

Tomb orientations show regional patterns:
– Primary Directions: North and east facing dominate
– Large Tombs: Varied orientations (Linzi tombs north; Junan east; Zhangqiu south)
– Site Specifics:
– Qufu Lu capital: 75% north-facing
– Tengzhou Xue state: All known north-facing
– Zhangqiu Ningjiabu: 43% east, 30% north
– Changdao Wanggou: 83% east-facing

Burial postures were overwhelmingly supine and extended, with rare flexed burials at Tengzhou and Zhangqiu sites.

### Tomb Structure and Furnishings

Architectural Features:
– Predominantly rectangular earthen pits
– Some with single (“A-shaped”) or double (“middle-shaped”) passages
– 11 cave tombs at Linzi Liangchun site

Unique Qi Practices:
– Sacrificial pits surrounding main chamber (Langjiazhuang M1 had 17)
– Distinctive object pits often at platform corners
– Multiple coffin layers (up to four at some sites)

Burial Furnishings Hierarchy:
1. Four layers: Changqing Xianrentai M6
2. Three layers: Several elite tombs
3. Two layers (common among nobility)
4. Single coffin (typical pottery tomb)
5. No coffin (poorer burials)

### Grave Goods Evolution

Spring and Autumn Period:
– Bronzes: Even-numbered identical ding sets (Changqing M6); later odd-numbered graded sets appear
– Pottery: Li tripods and guan jars dominate early; later combinations include ding, dou, guan

Warring States Period:
– Bronzes: Qi-developed dui tureens and zhou cups become prominent
– Pottery: Standard ding-dou-hu combinations; late period introduces he boxes

The material culture reveals Qi’s unique bronze traditions while showing Lu’s closer adherence to Central Plains norms.

Cultural and Social Implications

The burial practices reflect profound social realities:

1. Status Differentiation: Monumental tombs versus simple pits mirror strict hierarchies
2. Human Sacrifice: Persistence into Eastern Zhou shows lingering Shang traditions
3. Ethnic Complexity: Qufu’s dual burial groups evidence multi-ethnic society
4. Political Changes: Separate Jiang/Tian clan cemeteries document Qi’s dynastic transition
5. Cultural Exchange: Hybrid artifacts show interaction between Qi/Lu and Central Plains

Legacy and Modern Relevance

These archaeological finds:

1. Validate Historical Records: Confirm ancient texts about Qi/Lu differences
2. Illustrate Ritual Reform: Show changing attitudes toward human sacrifice
3. Inform Craft Studies: Bronze and pottery sequences aid chronology
4. Reveal Trade Networks: Exotic materials indicate far-reaching connections
5. Support Heritage Preservation: Provide basis for protecting these historic sites

The Qilu tombs stand as silent witnesses to China’s axial age, when Confucius walked the land and competing states laid foundations for imperial unification. Their careful study continues to reshape our understanding of ancient Chinese civilization’s diverse regional expressions.