Introduction: Unearthing the Legacy of the Chu State

Archaeological excavations have revealed over 6,000 Chu tombs to date, representing approximately 75% of all Eastern Zhou period (770-256 BCE) graves discovered. These tombs are primarily concentrated in modern Hubei, Hunan, Henan, and Anhui provinces, with scattered finds extending to Jiangsu, Shanghai, and Jiangxi. The heartland of Chu culture around Jiangling in Hubei and Changsha in Hunan contains nearly 5,000 tombs alone. Thanks to favorable soil conditions, water levels, and burial methods, Chu tombs often preserve wooden coffins and burial goods remarkably well. This wealth of material provides crucial evidence for understanding Chu burial customs during the Eastern Zhou period.

Regional Distribution of Chu Tombs

Across the vast territory of Chu cultural influence, tombs display both shared characteristics and regional variations. Based on cultural features and spatiotemporal distribution, Chu tombs can be divided into several major zones, with the most archaeologically rich being:

### The Jianghan Plain Region

This core Chu territory contains the highest concentration of tombs, particularly in the Jianghan Plain west of the Han River around Jiangling (modern Jingzhou), Dangyang, Jingmen, Yicheng, and Xiangfan. This area features large cemeteries with tombs of all ranks spanning extended periods, making them highly representative of Chu burial traditions.

The Jianghan region can be subdivided into central and northern zones. The central area around Jiangling’s Jinancheng has revealed about 40 cemeteries with over 5,000 tombs (nearly 3,000 excavated), dating from the early Zhou period to 278 BCE when Qin general Bai Qi captured the Chu capital. These vertical earthen pit tombs mostly date to the Warring States period. Higher status tombs feature mound coverings, stepped platforms, and long sloping passageways, typically oriented east or south. The filling of green/white clay around coffins aids preservation.

Burial goods include complete sets of bronze and ceramic ritual vessels, with distinct local styles like polished black pottery, ring-handled small-mouthed ding vessels, and fu food containers. Weapons—especially bronze swords—are common, as are lacquered wooden objects. Large and medium tombs often contain distinctive Chu items like tomb guardian figures, tiger-base flying birds, and tiger-base bird-frame drums.

The northern zone around Yicheng’s Chu Imperial City shows similar burial systems with some local variations. Tombs here rarely contain both bronze ritual vessels and ceramic imitations. Certain vessel combinations common further south are absent, and painted pottery is less frequent. Proximity to the Central Plains introduces some cultural influences, like round-lidded short-legged ding vessels showing Central Plains styles. Inscriptions on bronze vessels from conquered states like Deng and Ruo also appear.

### The Xiang River and Dongting Lake Region

This secondary concentration spans the middle and lower Xiang River basin and Dongting Lake area, including parts of Hubei south of the Yangtze and northern/central Hunan. Tombs here show influences from Yue culture—narrow, long pits with niches and Yue-style ding vessels in medium-sized Spring and Autumn period tombs. Over time, Yue elements diminish while locally developed Chu characteristics increase. Unlike Jiangling-area tombs, white clay for coffin protection is less common, flat-bottomed square coffins prevail, and bronze mirrors, seals, and iron objects appear more frequently. Ceramic li tripods are rare in daily-use pottery sets.

### The Southern Henan-Northwestern Hubei Region

This zone covers the upper Han River basin and areas north to the Chu border, showing both Chu and Central Plains influences. From mid-Spring and Autumn to late Warring States periods, large and medium tombs display Central Plains connections in cemetery organization, coffin-chamber systems, burial goods combinations, and chariot pit arrangements. Ceramic shapes and painted designs resemble Central Plains styles, with dou stemmed vessels being particularly common. Compared to Jianghan-area tombs, certain typical Chu items are absent, lacquered wood objects are fewer, and burial weapons less prevalent.

### Other Significant Regions

Additional Chu tomb concentrations reflect Warring States period territorial expansion and capital relocations:

– Eastern Jianghan Plain: Mostly small, late Warring States tombs showing mixed Chu-Yue cultural features
– Huai River Middle Reaches and Lower Yangtze: Primarily late Warring States tombs matching historical records of eastward expansion
– Western Hunan Highlands: Show interactions with Ba, Shu, and Pu cultures
– Upper Xiang River Region: Early Warring States Chu tombs overlay Yue burials, showing cultural blending

Classification of Chu Tombs

Decades of excavation and research have clarified Chu tomb typology, reflecting social hierarchies:

1. Type A: Large “jia”-shaped tombs with multiple coffins/chambers and bronze ritual/musical instruments. These have huge mounds, surrounding satellite burials, single ramps, multi-level platforms, and compartmentalized wooden chambers. Some contain human sacrifices, accompanying pits, and chariot pits. The deceased were high-ranking nobles like feudal lords or ministers. Examples include Xichuan Xiasi M2 and Jiangling Tianxingguan M1.

2. Type B: Medium “jia”-shaped tombs with double coffins/multiple chambers containing bronze and ceramic ritual vessels. These may have mounds and ramps, with one outer coffin enclosing two inner coffins. Goods include matched bronze/ceramic sets, drums/zithers (but no bells), chariot fittings, wooden figurines, and weapons. Occupants were lower aristocrats like undersecretaries. Examples include Xichuan Xiasi M8 and Jingmen Baoshan M1.

3. Type C: Small-medium single outer coffin/single inner coffin tombs with ceramic ritual vessels. Mostly moundless, some have ramps. Single outer coffin encloses one (sometimes two) inner coffins. Burials contain 2-4 sets of imitation bronze ceramic vessels, occasionally incomplete bronze sets, and sometimes daily-use pottery. Some include tomb guardians, drums, or zithers. These represent shi scholar-officials or commoners. Examples include Jiangling Taihuiguan M6.

4. Type D: Small single-coffin tombs with daily-use pottery. Coffins under 2.4m long contain either daily-use items or 1-2 ceramic ritual sets (typically ding, dui, hu combinations in mid-late Warring States). Some include weapons like swords. Occupants were commoners or lower shi.

5. Type E: Coffinless pit burials with few or no grave goods, belonging to the poor.

Burial Systems of Large and Medium Chu Tombs

### Noble Cemetery Organization

Large and medium tombs demonstrate distinct cemetery systems:

1. Mounds Near Jinancheng: Over 1,500 mound tombs cluster within dozens of kilometers of the Chu capital, forming seven major groups. Huge individual mounds (80-100m diameter, 7-10m high) stand alone or paired, while smaller mounds group around larger central ones—likely family plots. The Daxuejiawa cemetery features two large mounds north of 40 smaller ones arranged in orderly rows, possibly including a ritual platform.

2. Xichuan Xiasi Cemetery: This Spring and Autumn period noble cemetery on a ridge shows careful planning. Nine large/medium and 15 small tombs align north-south with chariot pits to the west. Grouped by period, the central cluster contains the largest tombs like M2 (9m long) with rich bronze goods but no ceramics. Fifteen small tombs nearby probably held sacrificial victims.

3. Jingmen Baoshan Cemetery: Five mound tombs of varying size align along a ridge crest. The largest (M2) has a 5.8m-high mound, with others decreasing in size westward. Inscriptions identify M2’s occupant as Shao, a high judicial official. The cemetery appears to be a family plot with generational couples.

### Characteristics of Large Tombs

Five excavated Type A tombs (one late Spring and Autumn, four mid-Warring States) show evolving traditions. Compared to earlier examples, Warring States tombs add ramps, stepped platforms, and compartmentalized coffin chambers with multiple inner coffins. Bronze ritual/musical sets remain central but increasingly include ceramic imitations.

1. Xichuan Xiasi M2: This 9m-long tomb contained nested lacquered coffins with gold foil remnants. Despite looting, it yielded 550+ bronzes (including 7 sheng ding vessels) and 900+ jade/stone items. An accompanying chariot pit held 7 vehicles and 19 horses. Inscriptions identify the occupant as Prince Wu (Zi Geng), a Chu prime minister who died in 552 BCE.

2. Xinyang Changtaiguan M1: Near the Chu capital, this 14.5×12m tomb had four stepped platforms and an east ramp. Its seven-compartment coffin chamber held nested coffins and 900+ items including bronze bells, lacquered drums, and bamboo slips recording burial contents. The mid-Warring States date suggests a high-ranking noble.

3. Jiangling Tianxingguan M1: This 30×33m tomb had a 7m-high mound and 15 stepped platforms. Its seven-chambered coffin space contained triple coffins and 2,400+ items including bronze vessels, musical instruments, weapons, and bamboo slips naming the occupant as “Lord Fan of Di,” a Chu feudal lord contemporary with Shang Yang (d. 338 BCE).

4. Jingmen Baoshan M2: The 34×32m tomb had 14 stepped platforms and east ramp. Its double outer coffin/triple inner coffin arrangement held 1,900+ items including 19 bronze ding vessels and 448 bamboo slips (12,400+ characters) documenting legal cases and burial records. Inscriptions identify the occupant as Shao Tuo, a high judicial official buried in 316 BCE.

### Characteristics of Medium Tombs

Dozens of Type B tombs (mostly mid-Warring States) show similar but scaled-down features:

1. Changsha Liuchengqiao M1: This 8.65×7m tomb had stepped platforms and ramp. Its double-coffin, three-chamber structure contained 260+ items including bronze swords, ceramic ritual sets, and a small accompanying coffin.

2. Jiangling Tengdian M1: The 11×9.6m tomb had five stepped platforms and east ramp. Its nested coffins held 300+ items including matched bronze ding, dou, and hu vessels, plus the famous Yue King Zhou Gou sword.

3. Jiangling Wangshan M1/M2: These mound tombs (16.1×13.5m and 11.8×9.4m) contained double/triple coffins in three chambers. M1 yielded 780+ items including the renowned Yue King Goujian sword and 14 ceramic ding vessels. Bamboo slips suggest the occupant (“Gu”) was a Chu royal clansman.

4. Echeng Baizifan M5: This 6.92×5.9m tomb had a double coffin and two sacrificial coffins in five chambers. Forty items included ceramic ritual sets and lacquered objects.

5. Xiangxiang Niuxingshan M1/M2: These mound tombs (13.75×11.78m and 20.6×18.3m) held double outer coffin/triple inner coffin arrangements. Though looted, they yielded lacquered items like tiger-base drum stands and tomb guardians, suggesting a couple’s burial (M2 possibly male with weapons).

Small Tomb Burial Systems and Evolution

Thousands of small tombs (Types C-E) in core Chu areas like Jiangling and Dangyang reveal burial customs across social strata:

### Tomb Structure Classification

Most (1,438 of 1,443) are vertical earthen pits (five are late Warring States catacomb tombs). By coffin type:
– 5 have double outer coffin/double inner coffin
– 705 have single outer coffin/single inner coffin
– 627 have single coffin only
– 46 lack coffins
– 5 show couple burials (parallel coffins)

About 7% have ramps (all Warring States period), more common in higher-status tombs. Higher grades use wider pits; lower grades often have niches for grave goods.

### Chronological Phases

1. Early-Middle Spring and Autumn (771-550 BCE): Few, low-status tombs showing Zhou cultural influence. Early pottery sets (li tripods, yu basins, dou stemmed dishes, guan jars) continue Western Zhou traditions. Emerging Chu characteristics appear by mid-Spring and Autumn.

2. Late Spring and Autumn to Early Late Warring States (550-278 BCE): Distinct Chu culture forms and flourishes, comprising 90.7% of tombs. Imitation bronze ceramic vessels dominate:
– Late Spring and Autumn: ding, fu, fou sets
– Warring States: ding, dui, hu sets
– Mid-Warring States peaks with diverse forms and painted designs

3. Late Warring States (278-221 BCE): Post-Qin conquest decline. Tomb numbers drop sharply. New combinations like ding, he boxes, and hu jars appear under Qin influence.

### Coffin-Chamber Systems

Warring States period compartmentalization spreads, mainly in Type C tombs (usually 2-3 chambers). Three coffin types emerge:
– Suspended flat-bottomed (early dominant)
– Suspended curved-bottom (distinctively Chu, Warring States peak)
– Flat-bottomed box (late appearance, persists post-Chu)

### Orientation and Burial Position

Most tombs align north-south (over 60% face south). All show supine, straight-limbed burials with hands on abdomen, wrapped in textiles and bamboo mats.

### Grave Goods Systems

Status differences appear clearly:
– Type C: 79.2% imitation bronze ceramics
– Type D: 82.2% imitation bronze ceramics
– Type E: 67.1% daily-use pottery

Items are placed:
– Outer coffin tombs: goods in head compartments or coffin ends
– Weapons/chariot fittings in side spaces
– Single coffin tombs: goods at head end
– Niches hold goods in pit burials

### Occupant Status and Cemetery Nature

These small tombs represent lower aristocrats (shi) and commoners in dense “national cemeteries” (bang zhong) under clan burial systems. For example, Jiangling Yutai Shan’s 700+ tombs in 84,000m² show organized groupings without overlaps.

Distinctive Features of Chu Tombs

Compared to Central Plains traditions, Chu burial customs show unique characteristics:

### Tomb Structure and Coffin Systems

– Warring States medium/large tombs commonly have mounds, ramps, and stepped platforms—rare in Central Plains except for very large tombs
– Chu favors suspended curved-bottom coffins; Central Plains uses flat-bottomed boxes
– Chu coffin binding with ropes and multi-layer wrapping persists to Han dynasty

### Orientation and Burial Position

– Chu elite tombs often face east; commoner tombs vary by region (Jiangling prefers south)
– All Chu tombs show supine, straight-limbed burial—unlike Central Plains’ occasional flexed burials

### Cemetery Organization

– Chu follows Zhou clan burial systems but shows status differences between husband/wife tombs unlike Central Plains’ spousal equality

### Grave Goods

1. Bronze/Ceramic Ritual Sets:
– Distinct ding, fu, fou and ding, dui, hu combinations
– Fu vessels hold higher status in Chu than Central Plains
– Even-numbered ding sets contrast with Central Plains’ odd-numbered Zhou traditions

2. Ding Vessel Systems:
– Chu-style sheng ding (standing ears, constricted waist, shallow belly, flat bottom) differ from Zhou sheng ding
– High elites use odd-numbered sets; lower elites use even numbers
– Small-mouthed jar-shaped ding (“soup ding”) are uniquely Chu

3. Daily-Use Pottery:
– Chu-style li tripods (high neck, high crotch, high feet) evolve differently from Central Plains li
– “Long-necked hu” jars appear uniquely in Chu areas
– Vessel development trajectories differ from Central Plains

4. Lacquered Wood and Weapons:
– Warring States Chu tombs feature abundant, exquisite lacquered wood items
– Distinctive tomb guardians, tiger-base bird-frame drums, and tiger-base flying birds reflect Chu spiritual beliefs
– Widespread weapon burials (especially swords) demonstrate Chu martial values

Conclusion: The Cultural Legacy of Chu Burial Traditions

The rich archaeological record of Chu tombs provides unparalleled insights into this major Eastern Zhou state’s social structure, artistic achievements, and spiritual world. From the magnificent bronzes of high elites to the humble pottery of commoners, these burials reveal a culture that both absorbed Zhou traditions and developed striking regional characteristics. The evolution of tomb styles mirrors Chu’s historical trajectory—from a Zhou frontier state to a dominant southern power to eventual Qin conquest. Most importantly, Chu burial customs demonstrate how ancient Chinese cultures blended shared ritual frameworks with local innovations, creating the diverse tapestry of China’s classical civilization.