The Seeds of French Expansion in Indochina
The mid-19th century was a period of aggressive European imperialism, and France was no exception. In 1858, under the pretext of protecting Catholic missionaries, France—alongside Spain—launched its first large-scale military intervention in Vietnam. This marked the beginning of a decades-long campaign to dominate the region.
France’s ambitions were not limited to Vietnam. Following the Second Opium War (1856–1860), which saw British and French forces sack Beijing and burn the Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan), France turned its attention southward. The 1862 Treaty of Saigon forced Vietnam to cede three southern provinces and an island, solidifying French control over Cochinchina (Southern Vietnam).
The Strategic Shift: From the Mekong to the Red River
Initially, France envisioned the Mekong River as its gateway into resource-rich Yunnan, China. However, surveys revealed the river’s upper reaches were unnavigable. This setback prompted a strategic pivot to northern Vietnam, where the Red River (Yuan River) offered a viable route into southern China.
Vietnam, like Korea, was a tributary state of Qing China. The Nguyen dynasty, established in 1802 by Emperor Gia Long (Nguyễn Phúc Ánh), received formal recognition from the Qing court. However, China’s suzerainty was largely nominal, focusing on ceremonial acknowledgment rather than direct governance. This hands-off approach left Vietnam vulnerable as France intensified its encroachments.
The Diplomatic Battle: Qing China vs. French Imperialism
By the 1880s, France sought to dismantle Qing China’s suzerainty over Vietnam. In 1881, Zeng Jize (Marquis Zeng), China’s ambassador to France and Britain, issued a stern protest to the French government, asserting Vietnam’s status as a Qing tributary and rejecting Franco-Vietnamese treaties.
Zeng proposed bold measures to reinforce China’s influence, including stationing Vietnamese officials in Beijing and Paris. However, his recommendations were overruled by Li Hongzhang, the powerful Qing statesman who favored compromise. Li’s reluctance to challenge France stemmed from his belief in maintaining traditional tributary formalities rather than confronting Western powers head-on.
This ideological clash between Zeng (a proponent of assertive diplomacy) and Li (a pragmatic negotiator) mirrored broader tensions within the Qing court. While Zeng, the son of the famed general Zeng Guofan, advocated resistance, Li prioritized stability through concessions.
The Black Flag Army: A Thorn in France’s Side
France’s ambitions in Vietnam faced fierce resistance from an unexpected force: the Black Flag Army, led by the charismatic Liu Yongfu. Born into poverty in 1837, Liu was a former Taiping rebel who later joined the anti-Qing Tiandihui (Heaven and Earth Society). After fleeing to Vietnam in 1865, he formed the Black Flag Army, a disciplined guerrilla force that harassed French troops.
Liu’s forces became a symbol of Vietnamese resistance, complicating France’s colonial designs. His guerilla tactics and knowledge of the terrain made him a formidable adversary, forcing France to divert resources from its broader Indochina campaign.
The Global Chessboard: France, Japan, and the Scramble for Influence
The late 19th century saw imperial powers jockeying for dominance in East Asia. France’s occupation of Hanoi in 1882 coincided with Japan’s growing interest in Korea, another Qing tributary. The two nations tacitly supported each other’s ambitions—France’s actions in Vietnam distracted Qing China, while Japan’s maneuvers in Korea weakened Beijing’s ability to respond decisively in Indochina.
In a revealing episode, Japanese political figures even sought French funding for a coup in Korea, highlighting the interconnected nature of imperial rivalries.
Legacy and Modern Reflections
France’s conquest of Vietnam reshaped Southeast Asia, leading to the formation of French Indochina in 1887. For China, the loss of Vietnam marked a humiliating erosion of its traditional sphere of influence, foreshadowing further declines in the face of Western and Japanese imperialism.
Liu Yongfu’s Black Flag Army remains a celebrated symbol of anti-colonial resistance in Vietnam, while the diplomatic struggles between Zeng Jize and Li Hongzhang underscore the challenges faced by weakening empires in an age of expansionist powers.
Today, this history serves as a reminder of how 19th-century imperialism redrew borders and identities, leaving legacies that continue to influence regional politics and national memory.