The Qing Dynasty’s Promotion of Confucian Orthodoxy

The early Qing rulers systematically promoted Confucian philosophy and Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism as state orthodoxy to reinforce the feudal system. Emperor Shunzhi bestowed upon Confucius the honorific title “Great Accomplished Ultimate Sage and Cultural Propagator First Teacher” in 1645. Emperor Kangxi famously praised Confucius as the “Teacher for Ten Thousand Generations,” personally traveling to Qufu in 1684 to perform the full ceremonial three kneelings and nine prostrations before the sage’s shrine.

This ideological campaign reached its zenith under Emperor Qianlong, who made nine separate pilgrimages to Confucius’s hometown. The court sponsored massive scholarly projects including reissuing the Ming-era Compendium of Nature and Principle, compiling the Complete Works of Zhu Xi, and creating the Essential Meaning of Nature and Principle. These texts became mandatory study materials in academies and the basis for civil service examinations, creating an environment where scholars “dared not speak anything contrary to Zhu Xi’s commentaries nor act against Zhu Xi’s family rituals.”

The Rise of Dissenting Thinkers

Despite this rigid orthodoxy, internal class contradictions and social changes produced a remarkable group of progressive intellectuals who challenged the status quo. These thinkers—including Huang Zongxi, Gu Yanwu, Wang Fuzhi, Fu Shan, Li Yong, Lü Liuliang, Tang Zhen, Yan Yuan, Li Gong, and Dai Zhen—developed critiques ranging from attacks on autocratic monarchy to advocacy for commercial development and expressions of anti-Manchu sentiment.

### Huang Zongxi: The Anti-Autocratic Visionary

Huang Zongxi (1610-1695), styled Taichong and known as the “Pear Orchard Master,” emerged from Zhejiang’s literati class. His father, an official martyred by the eunuch faction, shaped Huang’s political consciousness. After participating in anti-Qing resistance, Huang retreated into scholarship, refusing all Qing appointments despite pressure.

His masterpiece Waiting for the Dawn: A Plan for the Prince presents China’s most systematic pre-modern critique of autocracy. Using the I Ching’s “Ming Yi” hexagram (symbolizing light obscured but destined to return), Huang argued that rulers had distorted their original mandate to serve the people, instead treating the realm as private property. His radical proposals included:

1. Redefining ruler-minister relations as cooperative governance rather than absolute hierarchy
2. Establishing a prime ministerial system to check imperial power
3. Transforming academies into deliberative bodies that could influence policy

Economically, Huang broke with tradition by declaring commerce and industry equally fundamental to agriculture, reflecting emerging capitalist trends. His materialist leanings (“Principle depends on material force; without material force there would be no principle”) coexisted with residual idealism from his Wang Yangming school background.

### Gu Yanwu: The Scholar-Patriot

Gu Yanwu (1613-1682), famed for his evidential research methods, shared Huang’s anti-autocratic sentiments. His concept of “governance by the multitude” challenged centralized rule, while his distinction between “the fall of a dynasty” and “the collapse of civilization” inspired the famous nationalist slogan “Every common man has a responsibility for his country’s fate.”

Gu’s philosophical contributions included:
– Materialist views of qi (vital energy) as fundamental substance
– Emphasis on practical learning (“extensive study of culture” and “personal integrity in conduct”)
– Historical methodology combining textual analysis with fieldwork

### Wang Fuzhi: The Systematic Materialist

Wang Fuzhi (1619-1692), the “Chuanshan Scholar,” created China’s most sophisticated pre-modern materialist system. His key philosophical positions included:

1. Ontology: “The void is full of qi” – a universe composed solely of material force
2. Epistemology: Knowledge requires interaction between senses, mind, and objects
3. Dialectics: Absolute motion containing relative stillness (“Quiescence is quiescent motion, not no motion”)

Politically conservative regarding social hierarchy, Wang nonetheless advocated land reform to alleviate peasant burdens, warning that excessive oppression would provoke rebellion.

Other Notable Thinkers of the Early Qing

Beyond the “Three Great Early Qing Thinkers,” several intellectuals developed noteworthy critiques:

### Fu Shan: The Iconoclast

The Shanxi scholar Fu Shan (1607-1684) boldly challenged Confucianism’s privileged status, declaring: “The debate between classics and philosophers is trivial. Confucians consider the Six Classics superior simply because they’re called classics—what vulgar conventionalism!” His studies of Daoist and Mohist texts pioneered later Qing philological approaches.

### Tang Zhen: The Anti-Monarchist

Tang Zhen (1630-1704) launched scathing attacks: “All emperors since Qin have been thieves. Killing one person for their goods makes you a thief—what then of killing millions to take everything?” His Practical Writings also elevated merchants’ status, reflecting economic changes.

### Yan Yuan and Li Gong: The Practical Reformers

Yan Yuan (1635-1704) and disciple Li Gong (1659-1733) formed the “Yan-Li School” emphasizing hands-on learning. Yan rejected bookish abstraction: “The more scholars read, the more deluded they become.” Their reform program included:
– Land equalization
– Universal military training
– Hydraulic projects
– Merit-based appointments

### Dai Zhen: The Philosopher of Desire

The mid-Qing scholar Dai Zhen (1724-1777) delivered the era’s most devastating critique of Neo-Confucian asceticism. His materialist philosophy argued:
– Principle exists within material force, not above it
– Human desires are natural and legitimate
– Neo-Confucian “principle” had become a tool for oppression: “The powerful use principle to condemn the weak… Who pities those killed by principle?”

Intellectual Legacy and Historical Significance

These thinkers represented several important trends:

1. Anti-Autocratic Thought: Huang and Tang’s critiques foreshadowed modern democratic ideas
2. Materialist Philosophy: Wang and Dai developed sophisticated naturalistic worldviews
3. Practical Statecraft: Gu and Yan emphasized empirically-grounded reform
4. Commercial Values: Huang and Tang’s pro-commerce views reflected economic changes

While limited by their class perspectives and historical context, these intellectuals created an important counter-current to Qing orthodoxy. Their works would later inspire reformist and revolutionary movements in the 19th and 20th centuries, demonstrating the enduring relevance of early Qing critical thought.