The Political Landscape of the Song Dynasty

The Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127) was a period of remarkable economic growth, cultural flourishing, and administrative experimentation. However, by the mid-11th century, the empire faced mounting fiscal pressures, military threats from the Khitan Liao and Tangut Xia states, and growing social inequality. Emperor Shenzong (r. 1067–1085), eager to restore central authority and replenish state coffers, turned to the brilliant but controversial statesman Wang Anshi (1021–1086) to implement sweeping reforms known as the New Policies (Xinfa).

Wang Anshi’s reforms—enacted between 1069 and 1076—sought to strengthen government revenue, alleviate peasant burdens, and modernize the economy. Yet they provoked fierce opposition from conservative Confucian officials like Sima Guang (1019–1086), who saw them as disruptive to social order and harmful to the people. The resulting ideological clash would shape Song politics for decades.

Sima Guang’s Six Indictments Against the New Policies

In 1074, Sima Guang submitted a memorial to the throne containing six scathing criticisms of Wang Anshi’s reforms:

1. The Green Sprouts Loan (青苗法) – Designed to provide peasants with low-interest loans to avoid predatory lenders, Sima argued it trapped farmers in debt while yielding little state profit. Modern scholars note the policy did generate substantial revenue (2.92 million strings of cash in 1073 alone), contradicting Sima’s claim.
2. The Substitute Service Tax (免役法) – This monetized labor obligations, requiring commoners to pay fees instead of performing corvée labor. Sima contended it unfairly burdened the poor to benefit urban idlers (“floating wastrels”), though the policy did address the ruinous “yamen runner” duties that had bankrupted middle-class households.
3. State Trade Bureau (市易法) – Established government monopolies on key commodities to stabilize prices. Sima denounced it as the state “competing for profit with petty merchants” while depleting resources. Later historians recognized its fiscal motivations beneath egalitarian rhetoric.
4. Military Campaigns in the Northwest – Sima criticized frontier expansion as wasteful when domestic governance needed attention—a pragmatic objection given the Song’s strained finances.
5. Baojia Mutual Surveillance System (保甲法) – A militia organization scheme that Sima saw as militarizing farmers unnecessarily.
6. Farmland Irrigation Projects (农田水利法) – Though innovative (like artificial flooding to fertilize fields), Sima highlighted cases where forced labor and property damage provoked local resistance.

The Heart of the Controversy: Methods vs. Morality

Sima Guang’s critique exposed a fundamental tension in Song governance:

– Wang Anshi’s Utilitarianism – The reformer prioritized measurable outcomes—increased state revenue, agricultural productivity, and military readiness. His defense of the Irrigation Policy typified this: when eunuch Cheng Fang was accused of coercing peasants during land reclamation, Wang dismissed procedural violations by emphasizing the 14,000 newly fertile acres created.
– Sima Guang’s Confucian Conservatism – For Sima, proper governance required moral legitimacy, not just efficiency. He condemned policies that disrupted rural hierarchies or imposed top-down solutions without local consent. His objection to the Substitute Service Tax reflected Confucian skepticism of monetizing social obligations.

A revealing episode involved disputed “Thank Memorials” from peasants—allegedly praising irrigation projects. While Wang cited these as proof of popular support, Sima’s faction exposed cases where officials fabricated such documents to silence dissent. Wang likely recognized the fraud but saw the narrative as necessary to sustain reform momentum.

Social Impact and Grassroots Resistance

The New Policies had uneven effects across the Song Empire:

– Regional Disparities – The Substitute Service Tax worked poorly in cash-scarce regions where peasants “had labor but no money,” forcing some to sell land to pay fees.
– Urban-Rural Divide – Policies like the State Trade Bureau favored urban markets, fueling Sima’s disdain for “rootless” city dwellers benefiting at villagers’ expense.
– Local Defiance – Officials like Zhuding Guo (magistrate of Liuhe County) resigned rather than implement destructive irrigation projects, while peasants in Dongming County besieged Wang’s residence to protest corvée tax abuses.

Legacy: A Reforms Pendulum

After Emperor Shenzong’s death in 1085, Sima Guang became chancellor and repealed most New Policies—only for later administrations to revive them. This back-and-forth reflected enduring dilemmas:

– Centralization vs. Local Flexibility – Wang’s “one-size-fits-all” approach clashed with the Song’s regionally diverse economy. Even Sima’s repeal failed to address nuanced solutions for labor service.
– State Power vs. Gentry Interests – The reforms weakened local gentry’s autonomy (e.g., by replacing their loan monopolies with state credit), ensuring lasting elite opposition.
– Modern Resonances – Wang’s policies prefigured modern state-led development strategies, while Sima’s warnings about bureaucratic overreach remain relevant in debates over governance.

In the end, both men sought to strengthen the Song Dynasty—Wang through bold systemic change, Sima through cautious tradition. Their conflict underscores the timeless tension between innovation and stability in governance.