The Fractured Peace: Background of Qing-Zheng Relations

The mid-17th century witnessed one of the most dramatic confrontations in Chinese history as the newly established Qing dynasty sought to consolidate its rule over former Ming territories. At the center of this conflict stood Zheng Chenggong (known in Western sources as Koxinga), the formidable Ming loyalist who controlled crucial coastal regions. By 1654, after years of intermittent negotiations between the Qing court and Zheng’s forces, peace talks ultimately collapsed due to irreconcilable demands from both sides.

Zheng Chenggong, recognizing the inevitability of renewed conflict, embarked on a series of strategic preparations to strengthen his position. His forces maintained control over key islands including Xiamen (then called Zhongzuo) and Kinmen, while the Qing held most of mainland Fujian province. This geographical division created a tense stalemate that would soon erupt into open warfare.

The Turning Tide: Key Military Engagements

The winter of 1654 marked a significant shift in the balance of power when Qing officers in Zhangzhou secretly defected to Zheng’s side. Liu Guoxuan, a battalion commander, and Wei Biao, a company commander, made contact with Zheng’s forces and agreed to surrender the city. On the first day of the twelfth lunar month, Zheng’s generals Hong Xu and Gan Hui led troops under cover of darkness to Zhangzhou’s walls, where Liu provided crucial assistance from within. The city fell quickly, with newly appointed Qing officials including Regional Commander Zhang Shiyao and Prefect Fang Xingye forced to surrender.

Zheng Chenggong personally entered Zhangzhou four days later, warmly praising Liu Guoxuan’s defection and promoting him to a senior military position. This victory sparked a rapid series of conquests throughout the region:

– Later that month, Zheng’s forces captured Tong’an, Nan’an, Hui’an, Anxi, Yongchun, and Dehua counties
– By early 1655 (fifth day of the first lunar month), they took Xianyou county
– The strategic city of Quanzhou soon found itself surrounded

Despite these military successes signaling the complete breakdown of negotiations, Zheng continued diplomatic overtures to Qing officials, including Fujian Governor Tong Guoqi and Quanzhou defenders. His contradictory letters—simultaneously justifying military actions while suggesting possible reconciliation—were met with derision from Qing officials who mocked their “arrogant tone.”

Building a Parallel Government

In February 1655, citing the need for administrative efficiency during wartime, Zheng Chenggong established a six-minister system mirroring imperial bureaucracy:

– Created positions including censors, proclamation officials, and judicial officers
– Renamed Xiamen as “Siming Zhou” (Remembering Ming Prefecture)
– Instituted six supervisory officials to monitor governance

While Zheng’s chroniclers claimed these appointments were authorized by the exiled Yongli Emperor, contemporary evidence suggests they represented an autonomous political structure. This development, similar to actions taken by other Ming loyalist leaders like Sun Kewang, demonstrated Zheng’s growing autonomy while maintaining nominal allegiance to the Ming cause.

Strategic Retreat and Naval Expansion

Facing a major Qing offensive led by Prince Jidu in 1655, Zheng implemented a bold strategy:

– Abandoned recently captured Zhangzhou and Quanzhou territories
– Ordered destruction of city walls and buildings in these regions
– Used salvaged materials to fortify island strongholds like Kinmen and Xiamen
– Launched simultaneous naval campaigns north to Zhejiang and south to Guangdong

The northern expedition proved particularly successful, with Zheng’s forces recapturing the Zhoushan archipelago in October 1655. This strategic victory gave Zheng control over vital shipping lanes and demonstrated his naval superiority. Meanwhile, southern campaigns in Guangdong met with mixed results, achieving initial successes before suffering significant defeats near Jieyang in early 1656.

Crisis and Consequences: The Haicheng Betrayal

The year 1656 brought one of Zheng’s most significant setbacks when Huang Wu, commander of the crucial Haicheng garrison, defected to the Qing:

– Huang had been disciplined for poor performance in the Guangdong campaign
– Along with Su Ming (relative of executed general Su Mao), he surrendered Haicheng on June 24
– The loss of this heavily fortified mainland base was a devastating blow to Zheng
– Qing authorities rewarded Huang with the prestigious title “Duke of Haicheng”

This betrayal forced Zheng to reconsider his mainland strategy while highlighting growing tensions within his command structure. The incident also demonstrated the Qing court’s willingness to offer substantial rewards to defectors while systematically dismantling their military power afterward.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The 1654-1657 campaigns marked a pivotal phase in the Ming-Qing transition:

1. Military Innovation: Zheng demonstrated sophisticated combined land-sea operations and island-based defense strategies that would influence later coastal warfare.

2. Political Theater: His establishment of parallel Ming institutions while negotiating with the Qing revealed the complex realities of loyalist resistance.

3. Strategic Consequences: The loss of Haicheng forced Zheng to focus more on maritime power, foreshadowing his eventual invasion of Taiwan.

4. Historical Memory: These events shaped Zheng’s enduring legacy as both a Ming loyalist and pragmatic military leader who adapted to changing circumstances.

The Qing-Zheng conflict would continue for years, but this period established the patterns of coastal warfare, defection politics, and competing legitimacy claims that characterized the final decades of Ming resistance. Zheng’s ability to maintain an independent power base despite Qing superiority on land demonstrated the enduring importance of naval power in East Asian geopolitics—a lesson that would resonate through subsequent Chinese history.