The Ottoman Empire on the Brink of War
By 1918, the Ottoman Empire found itself in a precarious position within the First World War. What had begun in 1914 as an opportunity to reclaim lost territories and assert regional dominance had turned into a desperate struggle for survival. The empire’s leadership, particularly the triumvirate of Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha, and Cemal Pasha, had gambled heavily on a German victory that now seemed increasingly unlikely.
The strategic situation was dire. Ottoman forces were stretched thin across multiple fronts – from the Caucasus to Palestine, from Mesopotamia to the Dardanelles. The empire’s infrastructure, never robust to begin with, was crumbling under the strain of wartime demands. Food shortages plagued both the military and civilian populations, while disease ran rampant through the ranks. Yet, remarkably, few among the Ottoman leadership seemed to recognize how close their empire was to complete collapse.
The Macedonian Turning Point
The true beginning of the end came not in the well-known theaters of Gallipoli or Palestine, but in the often-overlooked Macedonian front. Here, the Allied forces under French General Louis Franchet d’Esperey launched a devastating offensive in September 1918 that would prove decisive.
The Macedonian campaign had long been considered a sideshow by both sides. Initially established in 1915 to aid Serbia, the Allied forces at Salonika had languished for years in what some called “the largest internment camp in Europe.” However, by 1918, this multinational force had grown to substantial size, including French, British, Serbian, Italian, and even some Russian units totaling nearly 250,000 combat troops.
The breakthrough came on September 15, 1918, when Allied forces smashed through Bulgarian lines. Within days, they had created a gap 50 kilometers wide in the enemy defenses. This victory was particularly significant because it exposed the growing fractures within the Central Powers alliance.
The Bulgarian Collapse and Its Consequences
Bulgaria’s surrender on September 29, 1918, sent shockwaves through the Central Powers. The Bulgarian army, which had borne the brunt of the fighting in Macedonia, was exhausted and demoralized. More importantly, Bulgaria’s defection severed the direct rail link between Germany and the Ottoman Empire, making it nearly impossible for the Germans to send reinforcements to their ally.
The roots of Bulgaria’s collapse lay in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk earlier that year. Bulgarian diplomats felt slighted by their German allies during the negotiations, receiving only meager territorial gains despite their significant contributions to the war effort. When German forces were withdrawn from Macedonia in mid-1918 to shore up the Western Front, it was the final straw for Bulgaria’s leadership.
The Palestinian Front: Allenby’s Offensive
While the Macedonian campaign was unfolding, British forces under General Edmund Allenby were preparing their own decisive blow in Palestine. The Ottoman defenses here were in terrible shape – troops were underfed, poorly equipped, and many were literally barefoot. The once-formidable Yildirim Army Group had been reduced to just 29,000 men, with Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk) commanding a mere 7,000 troops in the critical central sector.
Allenby’s offensive, launched on September 19, 1918, achieved immediate success. British air superiority allowed them to disrupt Ottoman communications, while the lack of barbed wire defenses made breakthroughs easier. Within days, Ottoman forces were in full retreat, harassed by Arab irregulars inspired by T.E. Lawrence’s exploits. The fall of Damascus on October 1 marked the effective end of Ottoman rule in Syria.
The Caucasus Diversion: Enver’s Fatal Mistake
Perhaps the most critical strategic error was Enver Pasha’s obsession with the Caucasus. Even as British forces advanced in Palestine and the Bulgarians collapsed in Macedonia, Enver continued to pour resources into campaigns in Azerbaijan and Dagestan. This diversion of forces left critical fronts like Palestine and Thrace dangerously undermanned.
German advisors repeatedly warned Enver about the dangers of overextending in the Caucasus, but their advice went unheeded. The consequences became apparent when the Allies threatened Constantinople itself – the Ottoman capital was virtually undefended because so many troops had been sent eastward.
The Armistice Negotiations
With Bulgaria out of the war and British forces advancing on multiple fronts, the Ottoman leadership finally recognized the need to seek peace. The negotiations that produced the Armistice of Mudros (October 30, 1918) were a study in diplomatic failure from the Ottoman perspective.
The Ottoman delegation, led by Minister of Marine Rauf Bey, was outmaneuvered by British Admiral Somerset Calthorpe. Exhausted and inexperienced, Rauf agreed to terms that effectively gave the Allies carte blanche to occupy any part of the empire they chose. Particularly damaging were:
– Article 7 allowing occupation of strategic points
– Article 16 requiring Ottoman surrender in Arab territories
– Article 24 permitting Allied intervention in Armenia
The Legacy of Defeat
The immediate aftermath of the armistice saw the complete disintegration of Ottoman authority across the Middle East. British forces occupied Mosul in violation of the armistice terms, while French troops moved into Cilicia. Most significantly, the straits and Constantinople itself came under Allied control.
The harsh terms imposed at Mudros set the stage for the eventual partition of the Ottoman Empire as outlined in the still-secret Sykes-Picot Agreement. However, the resistance led by Mustafa Kemal in Anatolia would eventually give birth to a new Turkish republic, proving that while the empire had fallen, the Turkish nation would endure.
The collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 serves as a stark lesson about the dangers of strategic overextension, the fragility of wartime alliances, and the consequences of failing to recognize when defeat is inevitable. The decisions made in those final months of war would shape the modern Middle East in ways that continue to resonate today.