Introduction: A Turbulent Era of War and Intrigue

The late 16th century was a period of intense political and military upheaval in Europe, marked by religious conflicts, dynastic struggles, and the contest for imperial power. At the heart of this maelstrom were England and Spain, locked in a bitter rivalry that would shape the destinies of both nations. Against this backdrop, the figure of Robert Dudley, the Earl of Leicester, emerges as a controversial and pivotal character. His military campaigns in the Netherlands, diplomatic machinations, and eventual political decline are intertwined with the rise of his stepson, Robert Devereux, the Earl of Essex, who would captivate Queen Elizabeth I and leave a profound legacy.

This article explores the key events of 1587 and 1588, focusing on Leicester’s renewed military expedition, the delicate peace negotiations, the shifting alliances, and the dynamic relationship between Elizabeth and Essex. Through a detailed examination of these episodes, we gain insight into the complex political landscape of Elizabethan England and the personal dramas that influenced its course.

The Earl of Leicester’s Return to the Netherlands in 1587

In the summer of 1587, Robert Dudley, the Earl of Leicester, returned to the Netherlands with a fresh contingent of three thousand soldiers and a fleet of warships. This move was part of England’s ongoing involvement in the Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule. Since 1568, the Dutch provinces had been fighting to free themselves from the oppressive reign of King Philip II of Spain, a conflict that had drawn in various European powers due to its religious and political implications.

Leicester’s renewed expedition was bold but fraught with challenges. The Duke of Parma, Alexander Farnese, the chief Spanish commander in the Low Countries, employed time-worn tactics of delay and negotiation. Parma cleverly initiated peace overtures, engaging in extended and convoluted discussions that effectively stalled Leicester’s military efforts. This diplomatic maneuvering bought valuable time for Spain to consolidate its position in the region.

The Papal and Spanish Alliance: The Threat to England

On July 29, 1587, a significant development occurred when Pope Sixtus V and King Philip II of Spain signed a treaty. This agreement granted Philip the authority to nominate any candidate he deemed suitable to govern England. The only stipulation was that this individual must restore Catholicism in England, which had been firmly Protestant under Elizabeth I.

This treaty underscored the existential threat facing Elizabeth’s reign. Spain was not only backing the Catholic cause abroad but was also preparing for a potential invasion of England. By September, Philip II ordered the Duke of Parma to organize a fleet capable of launching this invasion. Meanwhile, Elizabeth, acutely aware of England’s military weaknesses—particularly its small and relatively untested navy—placed her hopes on the continuing peace negotiations, hoping to avert open conflict.

Internal Strife Among England’s Allies: The Dutch Crisis and Leicester’s Recall

Despite Leicester’s efforts, the alliance between England and the Dutch provinces began to crumble. Internal divisions within the Netherlands threatened to erupt into civil conflict. Much of this discord was attributed to Leicester’s inability to unify the Dutch factions and effectively coordinate resistance against Spain. His leadership was widely criticized as ineffectual.

By autumn, Leicester himself recognized his diminishing utility in the Netherlands. On November 10, 1587, Queen Elizabeth ordered his return to England. Before departing, Leicester had a commemorative medal struck bearing the inscription: “I do not wish to leave the people, but this ungrateful rabble.” This statement reflected his frustration with the Dutch resistance and marked the beginning of his political decline.

Leicester’s Fall from Favor and the Transfer of Power to the Earl of Essex

Upon his return to the English court, Leicester found that Elizabeth’s warm public reception masked her private disappointment and frustration with his failures abroad. Unable to face the queen’s rebuke, Leicester retreated to his estate at Wanstead. He resigned from his nearly three-decade-long post as Master of the Horse, a prestigious position overseeing the royal stables and ceremonies, and persuaded Elizabeth to confer the title upon his stepson, Robert Devereux, the Earl of Essex.

This transfer of honor was more than ceremonial; it signaled a shift in courtly influence. Essex, young and charismatic, quickly became a favorite of the queen. His rise was facilitated by his stepfather’s mentorship, who hoped Essex’s growing power would restore the Dudley family’s standing. The relationship between Leicester and Essex was marked by mutual support and affection, in stark contrast to the fraught political environment they navigated.

The Enchanting Relationship Between Elizabeth I and the Earl of Essex

Robert Devereux was a man of noble blood, descended from the Plantagenet line, and raised in the Protestant faith that Leicester had championed. He embodied the ideals admired by Elizabeth: chivalry, confidence, and generosity. Essex was also a cultured courtier, skilled in poetry and rhetoric, and excelled at the elaborate masquerades and social events that were a staple of Elizabethan court life.

Elizabeth’s fascination with Essex was evident. Despite the thirty-three-year age difference, she was captivated by his masculine charm, vigor, and attentiveness. He accompanied the queen on walks and horseback rides, entertained her with music and card games into the early hours, and was a constant presence by her side. Essex’s combination of youthful vigor and noble bearing provided Elizabeth with companionship and a sense of rejuvenation during the later years of her reign.

Essex’s Charismatic Persona and Personal Flaws

Essex was not without his flaws. His temperament was volatile and often marked by arrogance and impulsiveness. He struggled with self-discipline and was known for his emotional outbursts, which could alienate allies and court officials alike. Essex’s inability to conceal his feelings or moderate his reactions made him a complex and unpredictable figure in the volatile environment of the royal court.

Despite these challenges, Essex possessed a magnetic appeal. Women were drawn to his physical presence—tall, with reddish-brown hair and beard, and graceful hands—and his confident demeanor. His poetic talents and striking appearance only added to his allure. Elizabeth, while never romantically involved with him in any confirmed historical sense, appeared to cherish him as a son she never had, investing in his success and forgiving his shortcomings.

The Queen’s Aging and the Myth of Eternal Beauty

Elizabeth cultivated an image of eternal youth and beauty, a persona that became central to her public identity. Rumors circulated about her timeless appearance, which the queen herself encouraged. However, maintaining this illusion grew increasingly difficult with age. To preserve her image, Elizabeth relied on wigs, cosmetics, and the company of vibrant young courtiers like Essex.

Essex’s presence seemed to restore a youthful vitality to the queen’s life. His admiration and attentiveness provided emotional sustenance amid the pressures of rulership. Yet, Elizabeth’s affection was carefully bounded; she viewed Essex more as a beloved son than a lover. This dynamic reinforced the queen’s image as the “Virgin Queen,” a symbol of chastity and sovereign authority.

Essex’s Spiritual Life and Personal Contradictions

Beneath Essex’s public persona lay a man wrestling with personal contradictions. While he was often impulsive and difficult, he also demonstrated a deep sense of spirituality. After moments of emotional turbulence or social missteps, Essex frequently sought solace in confession, attending church to confess his sins and seek redemption.

This juxtaposition of fiery temperament and religious devotion paints a portrait of a man caught between worldly ambition and personal conscience. His complexity made him both a fascinating and tragic figure in Elizabethan politics.

The Broader Context: England on the Brink of War

The events surrounding Leicester’s campaigns and Essex’s rise occurred against the looming threat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. Philip II’s plan to invade England aimed to overthrow the Protestant regime and restore Catholicism. Elizabeth’s reliance on diplomacy and personal alliances was tested to the utmost.

The internal divisions within England’s allies, the weaknesses of its military forces, and the shifting dynamics at court all contributed to the precarious situation. Yet, the resilience of the English navy and the leadership of figures like Essex would ultimately play a decisive role in repelling the Armada and securing England’s future as a maritime power.

Conclusion: Legacy of a Tumultuous Period

The intertwined stories of the Earl of Leicester and the Earl of Essex reveal much about the complexities of Elizabethan England—a realm where personal ambition, political intrigue, religious conflict, and cultural vibrancy collided. Leicester’s military endeavors and political missteps highlight the challenges England faced in asserting itself on the European stage. Meanwhile, Essex’s rise and his relationship with Elizabeth reflect the intimate human dramas that shaped the court’s atmosphere.

Together, these narratives illuminate the fragile balance of power and emotion that defined a critical era in English history. Their legacies endure not only in the annals of politics and war but also in the cultural memory of a queen and her court navigating the storms of change and uncertainty.