The Succession System of the Qing Dynasty

The Qing Dynasty maintained a unique imperial succession process that combined Manchu traditions with Chinese bureaucratic practices. Unlike previous Chinese dynasties that openly declared crown princes, the Qing emperors after Yongzheng adopted a secret succession system. The reigning emperor would write the name of his chosen heir on a document, place it in a box behind the “Upright and Bright” plaque in the Forbidden City, and only reveal it after his death.

This system aimed to prevent factionalism among court officials and reduce threats to the reigning emperor from ambitious heirs. Emperor Jiaqing, Daoguang’s predecessor, had followed this tradition when he ascended the throne in 1796. Historical records suggest he implemented the secret succession system in 1799 when he began his personal rule after his father’s death.

The Presumed Heir: Mianning’s Position

At the time of Jiaqing’s secret designation in 1799, the imperial succession appeared straightforward. Of Jiaqing’s five sons, the eldest had died in infancy without even receiving a name. This left Mianning (the future Daoguang Emperor), then 18 years old, as the senior surviving prince. His mother, Empress Xiaoshurui, had been Jiaqing’s primary consort, making Mianning both the eldest surviving son and the child of the principal wife – perfectly fitting Confucian succession ideals.

The younger princes presented no serious competition at that time. Miankai was only five years old, while two other sons (Mianxin and Mianyu) hadn’t even been born yet. Court observers naturally assumed Mianning would be the heir apparent, and for decades, this assumption went unchallenged in historical accounts.

The Sudden Death of Emperor Jiaqing

The circumstances surrounding Jiaqing’s death in 1820 raised the first serious questions about the succession. The emperor died suddenly on July 25 (the 25th day of the 7th lunar month) at the Rehe Mountain Resort, where the court was escaping Beijing’s summer heat. Official records stated he succumbed to heatstroke, but the explanation seemed suspicious for several reasons.

First, Jiaqing had been known for robust health throughout his 25-year reign. Second, the timeline of his illness kept changing in Daoguang’s accounts – initially suggesting death within a day, then later claiming the emperor had been ill for three days. Historians Sun Wenfan, Feng Shibo, and Yu Boming have highlighted these inconsistencies, noting how the shifting narrative created doubts about what really happened during those critical final days.

The Missing Succession Document

The most significant controversy emerged regarding the succession document itself. According to standard Qing practice, there should have been two copies of the will – one kept with the emperor during his travels and another behind the palace plaque in Beijing. Yet when Jiaqing died at Rehe, officials only produced a single document found among the emperor’s belongings.

Taiwanese scholars Tao Xisheng and Shen Tingyuan have argued this suggests no proper succession arrangement existed at all. Their research indicates that when Jiaqing died, “there was neither an imperial order nor an heir apparent.” The absence of the Beijing copy particularly troubled historians, as it violated established Qing protocols and raised questions about the document’s authenticity.

The Empress Dowager’s Opposition

Further complicating matters was the apparent resistance from Empress Dowager Xiaoherui, Jiaqing’s widow and Mianning’s stepmother. Historical records suggest she favored one of her two biological sons – either 25-year-old Miankai or 15-year-old Mianxin – over Mianning for the throne.

An edict issued by the empress dowager on August 29, 1820 contains telling language: “Fearing that in the sudden emergency, the late emperor might not have had time to clearly instruct…” This carefully worded statement implies she believed Jiaqing hadn’t formally designated Mianning as heir. As the mother of two other adult princes, she potentially held significant influence over the succession decision during the chaotic period following the emperor’s death.

The Purge of Key Witnesses

Mianning’s actions after ascending the throne as the Daoguang Emperor raised additional suspicions. Shortly after his coronation, he removed all four of Jiaqing’s senior military councilors – Tuo Jin, Dai Junyuan, Lu Yinpu, and Wen Fu – from their positions. These men had been present at Jiaqing’s deathbed and likely knew the exact circumstances surrounding the succession.

Historians speculate these officials might have been involved in drafting Jiaqing’s final edict or served as witnesses to any deathbed declarations. Their abrupt removal suggests Daoguang wanted to eliminate potential dissenters or suppress inconvenient truths about his accession. The new emperor replaced them with his own loyalists, effectively silencing anyone who might challenge the official version of events.

Modern Historical Perspectives

Contemporary historians remain divided about what actually occurred during this critical transition. Some maintain that despite the procedural irregularities, Daoguang was indeed Jiaqing’s legitimate heir. They argue the missing Beijing document could have been an administrative oversight, and the empress dowager’s resistance merely reflected common palace intrigues rather than a genuine succession crisis.

However, other scholars point to the accumulation of anomalies – the suspicious circumstances of Jiaqing’s death, the problematic succession document, the empress dowager’s opposition, and the subsequent purge – as evidence of possible manipulation. The lack of definitive proof leaves room for ongoing debate, making Daoguang’s accession one of the Qing dynasty’s lingering historical mysteries.

The Legacy of the Succession Controversy

The questions surrounding Daoguang’s rise to power had lasting implications for his 30-year reign (1820-1850). Coming to the throne under such circumstances may have influenced his conservative governance style and distrust of court officials. His reign witnessed the beginning of serious decline for the Qing dynasty, including the disastrous First Opium War (1839-1842) that exposed China’s military weakness to Western powers.

The succession controversy also damaged the credibility of the secret succession system. While designed to prevent disputes, the opaque process actually created opportunities for manipulation when an emperor died unexpectedly away from the capital. Later Qing successions would face similar scrutiny, particularly the ascension of the Xianfeng Emperor in 1850.

Unanswered Questions and Future Research

Several key questions remain for historians to explore:

1. What exactly caused Jiaqing’s sudden death at age 60?
2. Why were there discrepancies in the official accounts of his final illness?
3. Was the succession document found at Rehe authentic, or was it created after the fact?
4. What role did the empress dowager truly play in the succession process?
5. Why did Daoguang feel compelled to remove all of his father’s senior advisors?

Future discoveries in Qing archives or private collections may shed new light on these questions. Until then, Daoguang’s accession remains a compelling historical puzzle that reveals the complex interplay of ritual, power, and personality in Qing dynasty politics. The case serves as a valuable reminder that even seemingly straightforward successions in imperial China could conceal layers of intrigue and controversy.