The Mystery of Xiaozhuang and Dorgon

One of the most debated topics in Qing Dynasty history is whether Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang, the mother of the Shunzhi Emperor, married her brother-in-law, the powerful regent Dorgon, after the death of her husband, Hong Taiji. Historians have proposed three main theories:

1. Xiaozhuang did marry Dorgon.
2. Xiaozhuang never married Dorgon.
3. Xiaozhuang and Dorgon were lovers, engaging in an extramarital affair.

Which of these theories holds the most historical truth? To answer this, we must examine the broader cultural and historical context of marriage customs in China and beyond.

The Tradition of Levirate Marriage

A widow marrying her deceased husband’s brother—was this a backward custom unique to certain ethnic minorities in China? Or was it a widespread practice among many cultures, including the Han Chinese?

After extensive research, I conclude that levirate marriage (转房婚, “turning-room marriage”) was a common practice among many ancient Chinese ethnic groups, including the Han.

### What Was Levirate Marriage?

Also known as “inheritance marriage” or “widow inheritance,” levirate marriage involved:
– A son inheriting his father’s widow (excluding his own mother).
– A younger brother marrying his elder brother’s widow.
– An elder brother marrying his younger brother’s widow.

Modern jokes call this “keeping the fertilizer in the family,” and there is some truth to this. Anthropologists trace this custom to primitive societies where women were considered property. In tribal warfare, captured women were assets, and if a man died, his widow would be transferred to another man in the tribe.

With the rise of private property and family structures, this practice narrowed to within the kinship group. Beyond property considerations, levirate marriage also ensured the care of children and widows. Even today, in rural China, if a man dies, his brothers often take responsibility for his widow and children.

### Levirate Marriage Among Ethnic Minorities

Northwest Qiang People:
The Qiang, one of China’s oldest ethnic groups, practiced levirate marriage for centuries. Historical records state: “After the death of a father, uncle, or brother, one would take their wives as his own.” Even Li Yuanhao, the emperor of the Western Xia, took his son’s wife as his own—a shocking act to Han Chinese but normal in Qiang culture.

Northeastern Jurchens and Others:
The Jurchens (ancestors of the Manchus) had a similar custom: widows would be inherited by male relatives. The same was true for the Oroqen, though they forbade elder brothers from marrying younger brothers’ widows.

Southwestern Yi, Wa, and Others:
In Sichuan’s Liangshan Yi region, widows were required to remarry within the husband’s family—first to brothers, then to uncles or even stepsons. This prevented property from leaving the clan. The Wa, Jingpo, Nu, Pumi, and Lahu peoples also practiced this.

Exceptions:
Some groups, like the Monba in Tibet, strictly forbade levirate marriage. The Daur in Northeast China viewed sisters-in-law as maternal figures, making such unions taboo.

Levirate Marriage Among the Han Chinese

Contrary to popular belief, the Han Chinese also practiced levirate marriage since ancient times.

### The Legend of Shun
Before becoming emperor, Shun (舜) was mistreated by his father and younger brother, Xiang (象). Once, they tried to kill him by pushing him into a well. Believing Shun dead, Xiang declared, “Now his two wives will be mine!” (Mencius, Book 9).

### The “Ying” System (媵制)
Another Han custom was the ying system, where a bride’s sisters or female relatives would accompany her as secondary wives. Emperor Yao married his two daughters, Ehuang and Nüying, to Shun simultaneously.

This practice declined after the Warring States period but left traces, such as widowers remarrying their late wife’s sisters.

### Reasons for Levirate and Polygamous Customs
1. Patriarchal Control: Men treated women as property.
2. War and Slavery: Captured women became concubines.
3. Political Alliances: Marriages secured diplomatic ties.
4. Heir Production: More wives meant more sons, ensuring lineage continuity.

Han and Minority Interactions

When Han Chinese interacted with ethnic minorities, levirate customs often blended. Two famous examples:

### 1. The Princesses of the Western Han
– Princess Xijun (细君公主): Married to the Wusun king, she was later inherited by his grandson. Heartbroken, she wrote a famous lament before dying young.
– Princess Xieyou (解忧公主): Married three Wusun kings in succession, strengthening Han-Wusun ties.

### 2. Wang Zhaojun (王昭君)
Sent to marry the Xiongnu chieftain, she was later inherited by his son. Despite her protests, the Han court ordered her to comply for diplomatic stability.

Conclusion: Was Xiaozhuang’s Marriage to Dorgon Plausible?

Given the prevalence of levirate marriage across Han, Manchu, Mongol, and other cultures, if Xiaozhuang did marry Dorgon, it would not indicate “backwardness.” Instead, it would reflect a long-standing Eurasian tradition.

The debate persists because:
– Political implications: Later Qing rulers may have suppressed records to avoid scandal.
– Cultural bias: Confucian scholars condemned such unions, despite their historical normality.

Ultimately, whether Xiaozhuang married Dorgon remains unresolved. But the controversy reveals much about how history is shaped by cultural perspectives. Far from being a “barbaric” custom, levirate marriage was a pragmatic institution that spanned civilizations.