Introduction: A Voice Against the Nationalist Chorus

In the late 19th century, Japan was undergoing a profound transformation. The Meiji Restoration had catapulted the nation from feudal isolation into rapid modernization and imperial ambition. Nationalism surged through Japanese society like wildfire, shaping education, politics, and public opinion. Dissenting voices were rare and often met with harsh repression. Yet, in the midst of this fervor, some individuals dared to stand apart, guided by conscience and principle.

One such figure was Kanzo Uchimura, a Christian educator and intellectual whose refusal to conform to the state’s growing demands for loyalty would make him both a pariah and a hero. His story illuminates the tensions between individual faith and state ideology, the challenges of modernization, and the tragic consequences of militant nationalism.

The Meiji Era: Japan’s Rapid Modernization and Rising Nationalism

The Meiji era was a period of sweeping change in Japan. After centuries of feudal rule under the Tokugawa shogunate, the Meiji Restoration restored imperial power and launched a campaign to modernize all aspects of Japanese society.

This era saw the introduction of a constitutional government, with the first Imperial Diet convened in 1890, signaling Japan’s tentative step toward constitutional monarchy and parliamentary politics. The country adopted Western technology, reorganized its military, revamped education, and pursued industrialization.

However, alongside modernization came the rise of aggressive nationalism. The state sought to foster unity and loyalty to the emperor as Japan emerged as a regional power. Nationalist education policies emphasized loyalty, filial piety, and devotion to the emperor, often at the expense of individual freedoms and dissenting views.

Kanzo Uchimura’s Early Life: Education, Faith, and Idealism

Kanzo Uchimura was born in 1861 into a samurai family, a status that was quickly becoming obsolete in the new Meiji order. At age 16, he enrolled in the Sapporo Agricultural College in Hokkaido, a progressive institution staffed by foreign teachers and imbued with liberal and Christian ideals. The college’s principal, William S. Clark, an American educator and missionary, was a pivotal influence on Uchimura, inspiring his commitment to education and Christianity.

Uchimura embraced Christianity wholeheartedly, becoming a devout believer. After graduating, he worked for the Hokkaido Development Commission before traveling to the United States in 1884 to study for six years. His time abroad reinforced his faith and broadened his worldview.

Upon returning to Japan, Uchimura chose a career in education, motivated by the belief that Japan’s future depended on cultivating talented and morally upright individuals. He joined Tokyo First Higher School in 1890 as a history teacher, optimistic about contributing to Japan’s modernization through education.

The Education Rescript and the Demand for Loyalty

In 1890, just as Uchimura began teaching, Japan’s government issued the Imperial Rescript on Education, a document that became a cornerstone of nationalist education. The Rescript emphasized Confucian virtues such as loyalty to the emperor and filial piety, and it mandated rituals of reverence in schools—including bowing to the emperor’s portrait and reciting the Rescript during ceremonies.

These practices were designed to foster a unified national identity centered on emperor worship and unquestioning loyalty, reinforcing the state’s authority.

The Incident of January 9, 1891: A Conscientious Stand

On January 9, 1891, Tokyo First Higher School held a ceremony to read the Imperial Rescript on Education. Following the reading, students and teachers were required to perform a deep bow—ninety degrees—in front of the Rescript and the emperor’s portrait.

Kanzo Uchimura, as a devout Christian, believed that such acts of reverence were reserved for God alone. He refused to perform the bow, stepping down from the podium rather than participating in what he considered idolatry.

This act of defiance shocked the school and the nation. It was seen as an act of “great disrespect” toward the emperor and the nation, an affront in an era when imperial reverence was equated with patriotism.

The Backlash: Branding a Patriot as a Traitor

The incident triggered a media frenzy. Newspapers and magazines across Japan published over a hundred articles condemning Uchimura, labeling him a “traitor,” “disloyal subject,” and “slave of foreign churches.” The term “traitor” carried severe social and political consequences, tantamount to a death sentence in the public mind.

Some ultra-nationalist students even sent Uchimura letters containing razor blades, urging him to commit ritual suicide . Such threats illustrate the depth of nationalist fervor and the intolerance for dissent.

Uchimura was expelled from the school, his reputation destroyed. A colleague who defended him was also dismissed. With no steady income, Uchimura faced poverty and illness. His wife, only 23 years old, contracted influenza and died shortly thereafter. These personal tragedies compounded his social ostracism.

Persistence in Adversity: Uchimura’s Later Life and Influence

Despite immense hardship and isolation, Uchimura remained steadfast in his Christian faith and principles. He continued to teach at various remote schools and became a prolific writer and journalist. Through his writings, he influenced a generation of Japanese intellectuals and Christians.

Uchimura’s life highlights the costs of standing against the tide of militant nationalism during a critical period in Japan’s history. His courage and integrity provided a counterpoint to the dominant ideology of unquestioning loyalty and militarism.

The Imperial Rescript on Education: Shaping a Generation’s Mindset

The Rescript’s emphasis on loyalty and obedience profoundly shaped Japanese society. It indoctrinated youth to equate patriotism with self-sacrifice for the emperor and the state. Students were taught that in times of national crisis, they must respond with “righteous courage” to support the emperor’s eternal reign.

This ideology laid the groundwork for Japan’s militaristic expansion in the decades to come. Students and young men eagerly volunteered for Japan’s wars, including the First Sino-Japanese War , driven by a sense of duty and honor.

The First Sino-Japanese War and the Illusion of a “Civilizing Mission”

Kanzo Uchimura initially supported Japan’s war against the Qing dynasty in 1894, a conflict known as the First Sino-Japanese War. Like many intellectuals of the time, he believed Japan represented “civilization,” while Qing China was “barbaric.” The war was seen as a just and necessary campaign to “civilize” and reform East Asia.

This belief was widespread among Japan’s educated elite, who saw imperial conquest as a moral imperative. However, the war also marked the beginning of Japan’s aggressive expansionist policy, which would later lead to devastating conflicts.

Conclusion: Legacy of Conscience in an Era of Nationalism

Kanzo Uchimura’s story embodies the tension between faith and nationalism, individual conscience and state authority, reason and fervor. His refusal to bow to the Imperial Rescript on Education was not merely an act of rebellion but a profound moral stance rooted in his Christian beliefs.

In a society swept up by collective nationalism and militarism, Uchimura’s voice was a rare beacon of dissent and integrity. His experience reminds us of the dangers of suppressing individual conscience in favor of ideological conformity.

Today, Uchimura is remembered as a pioneering Christian thinker and a symbol of moral courage. His life encourages reflection on the importance of protecting freedom of conscience and the vital role of dissent in any healthy society, especially during times of political and social upheaval.

By revisiting his story, we gain insight into the complexities of Japan’s modernization, the seductive power of nationalism, and the enduring human struggle to reconcile personal faith with public duty.