The Dawn of Human Settlement in the Ukrainian Lands

The territory we now know as Ukraine has witnessed human activity for approximately 150,000 years, with archaeological evidence scattered across the region revealing a rich tapestry of prehistoric life. By 5000-4000 BCE, the first agricultural communities had established themselves in southwestern Ukraine, belonging to what scholars call the Trypillian culture. These early agriculturalists inhabited large villages that by 2700 BCE had expanded eastward along the Dnieper River near modern Kyiv.

The Trypillian culture has become subject to various nationalist interpretations, with some Ukrainian writers making extraordinary claims about their accomplishments—from inventing the wheel and writing systems to connections with distant civilizations. Most scholars dismiss these assertions as fanciful speculation without archaeological support. What remains certain is that these ancient people cannot be meaningfully called Ukrainians—they spoke no Ukrainian language, held no concept of Ukraine, and practiced no form of Christianity. By approximately 2000 BCE, the Trypillian culture disappeared, replaced by nomadic tribes who found Ukraine’s climate and soil ideal for animal husbandry.

Early Historical Records and Migratory Peoples

The first written references to inhabitants of Ukrainian territories appear in Homer’s Odyssey, which mentions the land north of the Black Sea as the place of the Cimmerians. Though Homer provides little detail, subsequent scholarship suggests the Cimmerians were skilled horsemen who introduced the Iron Age to Ukraine.

Better documented were the Scythians, who inhabited southern Ukraine (Crimea and the Black Sea coast) by the 7th century BCE. The prophet Jeremiah described them as a “cruel and ruthless” people from the north, while Herodotus, visiting in the 5th century BCE, portrayed them as fierce nomads who drank blood, spoke a Persian language, and vested political power in military aristocracy. Beyond warfare and raiding, they maintained commercial relations with Greek colonies along the Black Sea coast.

By the 4th century BCE, the Scythians had expanded westward to the Danube but were defeated by Philip of Macedon in 339 BCE. Their legacy remains visible in the large burial mounds of Scythian chieftains still found in southern Ukraine, and many regional river names—Dnieper, Dniester, Donets, Danube—likely derive from Persian/Scythian origins.

Following Scythian decline, another eastern people of Persian speech, the Sarmatians, dominated southern Ukraine. Like the Scythians, they were fierce warriors who maintained trade networks extending as far as China. By the 3rd century CE, the Sarmatians faced challenges from multiple directions—Huns from the east, Germanic Goths from the north, and Romans from the west—ultimately yielding to these new forces.

The Emergence of Slavic Identity

The various peoples mentioned thus far were not Slavs, despite later nationalist claims to these connections. The foundations of Ukrainian civilization properly originate with the Slavs, more specifically the East Slavs.

Most scholars maintain that Slavs—comprising numerous tribes—initially settled near the Carpathian Mountains in what is now Poland and western Ukraine. Around the 7th century, they began colonizing new territories across the Balkans and into modern Russia. Through this migration, their language developed three branches: West Slavic (precursor to Polish and Czech), South Slavic (precursor to Serbian and Bulgarian), and East Slavic (precursor to Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Russian).

The early history of Slavs in Ukraine remains obscure, with limited documentary evidence. The Primary Chronicle, compiled in the early 12th century, claims Slavs—like the Scythians before them—descended from Japheth, son of Noah. A less legendary theory based on archaeological evidence identifies the Antes tribal federation as the beginning of East Slavic culture, though debate continues regarding whether the Antes were indigenous or migratory, whether they were truly Slavs, and when exactly they emerged.

The Polianians were among the largest Antes tribes. According to the Primary Chronicle, they established Kyiv in 482 CE, naming it after their prince Kyi. Some believe the Polianians possessed a writing culture using a pre-Cyrillic alphabet, though no direct evidence supports this. What seems credible is that the Polianians had direct contact with the Greek Byzantine Empire at Constantinople and knowledge of Christianity.

The dispersed Antes tribal federation was defeated in 602 CE by the Avars, a Turkic tribe that controlled much of Eastern Europe, though East Slavic culture and identity persisted. The Avar Empire declined by the early 9th century, and subsequently, several southern Slavic tribes fell under the control of the Khazars, another Turkic people. In the north, Varangians from Scandinavia gained control over numerous East Slavic tribes. Under foreign domination, the Slavic lands in modern Ukraine became an economic, cultural, and political backwater by the 9th century.

The Foundation of Kyivan Rus

Despite these challenges, by the early 11th century, Kyiv had become the capital of a powerful grand principality—Rus—rapidly emerging as one of Europe’s most advanced societies. Modern Ukrainians eagerly claim Rus’s glory as their own, with its remnants still visible in Kyiv and throughout the country, though the origins of Kyivan Rus remain shrouded in controversy.

The central question: Who founded Kyivan Rus? The Scandinavian or Viking theory, based on the Primary Chronicle, recounts how in 860-862 CE, tributaries drove the Varangians overseas, refused to pay tribute, and began self-rule. However, without order, they fell into conflict and decided: “Let us seek a prince who may rule over us and judge us according to the law.” They went overseas to the Varangians called Rus and said: “Our whole land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. Come to rule and reign over us.”

The chronicle continues that three brothers were chosen, with the eldest, Riurik, ruling Novgorod. After his brothers died, Riurik became sole ruler of Rus and colonized other Slavic towns. Novgorod nobles Askold and Dir received Riurik’s permission to travel down the Dnieper, where they became rulers of the Polianians of Kyiv. They developed the settlement and even launched a major military expedition against Constantinople. Reportedly, they converted to Christianity though didn’t require their subjects to join the church.

Their rule ended abruptly in 879 when Riurik died. The pagan regent Oleg for Riurik’s young son Ihor attacked Kyiv, executed Askold and Dir in 882, declared himself grand prince of Kyiv, established Kyiv as the new capital of Rus, and proclaimed it the “mother of Rus cities.”

The controversy here is evident: Disorganized Slavs couldn’t govern themselves and invited Scandinavians to rule them. Most historians interpret the chronicle skeptically, suggesting Scandinavians weren’t invited but came seeking resources and control over waterways to Constantinople and the Middle East. Given the Primary Chronicle was compiled centuries later, some believe it drew on Scandinavian legends and contains self-serving contradictions, leading them to discard the narrative entirely.

Ukrainian historian Mykhailo Hrushevsky, while acknowledging many Scandinavians lived in and around Kyiv during the 9th century, considered early Ukrainian history “obscure,” based on “foreign legends and sparse records.” The debate extends to the origin of the term “Rus.” Hrushevsky argued it derived from indigenous Slavs near Kyiv, while others suggest it came from the Old Swedish term Ruotsi through Finnish. Even if Kyivan Rus’s earliest rulers weren’t Slavs, they undoubtedly became Slavicized, as evidenced by the Slavicization of their names.

The Golden Age of Kyivan Rus

With Varangian military assistance, Volodymyr overthrew his brother Yaropolk in 980, consolidating power and ushering Rus into a new era. Internal conflicts among Riurik dynasty members ceased, economic and cultural development advanced, and Rus territory expanded to become Europe’s largest state, stretching west to the Carpathians and north to include modern Saint Petersburg and Moscow. Rus developed dynastic marriage ties with Western European countries and launched an unsuccessful attack on Constantinople.

Volodymyr’s most enduring achievement for Kyivan Rus and subsequent Ukrainian culture was the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity in 988. Christianity wasn’t new to Rus—Volodymyr’s grandmother Olha was Christian, and legend even claimed St. Andrew preached in Scythia in 55 CE—but Slavic tribes had never collectively converted. Volodymyr began as a pagan worshipping Perun, a version of the Scandinavian god Thor, and was known for ruthlessness and numerous concubines.

The Primary Chronicle recounts that Volodymyr recognized the need to adapt his empire to contemporary standards by adopting a new religion. He reportedly considered several options: Islam was rejected due to circumcision and prohibitions on pork and alcohol (“Drinking is the joy of the Rus,” he supposedly said. “We cannot exist without that.”); Judaism seemed unattractive as the faith of a stateless people; Catholic liturgy was too strict and required allegiance to the pope. Finally, Byzantine Orthodoxy proved most impressive with its golden churches, particularly Constantinople’s Hagia Sophia, and magnificent religious rituals. Rus emissaries reported: “We knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth… We only know that God dwells there among men, and their service is fairer than the ceremonies of other nations.”

Soon after, Volodymyr was baptized and commanded Kyiv residents to jump en masse into a tributary of the Dnieper for baptism while pagan idols were thrown into the water. Over subsequent years, all Rus gradually converted to Orthodoxy.

Practical considerations likely drove this epochal event. In 987, Volodymyr helped the Byzantine emperor suppress a rebellion in exchange for marriage to Princess Anna. The emperor reluctantly agreed on condition of Volodymyr’s conversion. Eager for dynastic alliance with powerful Byzantium, successor to Rome, Volodymyr agreed. When Byzantium delayed the wedding, Volodymyr occupied Greek cities in Crimea and threatened to march on Constantinople, ultimately securing his marriage to Anna and forging close Rus-Byzantine ties.

The baptism of Rus carried immense significance. By choosing Christianity over Islam, Volodymyr connected Rus (and its successors) to Europe rather than the Middle East. However, by selecting Orthodoxy over Catholicism (the two formally split in 1054), East Slavs became separated from their western Catholic neighbors like the Poles. Orthodoxy helped forge a common identity and laid foundations for much Slavic culture, earning Volodymyr the title “Volodymyr the Great.”

Volodymyr made shrewd decisions during his reign, bringing Greek priests and artisans to build churches and administer the church. Greeks introduced new technologies that stimulated economic and cultural awakening. Orthodox spirituality and doctrine supported monarchy, providing new legitimacy for Volodymyr’s power. As a Christian ruler, he could establish better connections with European monarchs, enhancing both personal prestige and trade opportunities.

Cultural and Political Zenith Under Yaroslav

Following Volodymyr’s death, Kyivan Rus experienced another period of political turmoil when his eldest son Sviatopolk killed three brothers to consolidate power. His brother Yaroslav brought Varangian reinforcements and defeated Sviatopolk in 1019. Yaroslav ruled from northern Novgorod while his brother Mstyslav controlled Chernihiv. After Mstyslav’s death in 1036, Yaroslav became sole ruler and moved to Kyiv to assume the grand princely throne.

The reign of Grand Prince Yaroslav (1036-1054) is typically considered Kyivan Rus’s zenith, earning him the epithet “Yaroslav the Wise.” Like his father, he successfully defeated foreign enemies and expanded borders to the Baltic Sea in the north and Black Sea in the south. He ordered construction of churches and monasteries that became important centers of learning. During his rule, over 400 churches were built in Kyiv, most notably the Saint Sophia Cathedral constructed between 1037-1044. Designed with exterior features and interior frescoes and mosaics mirroring Constantinople’s Hagia Sophia, the cathedral still stands after Baroque renovations, containing unusual spiritual and political significance that speaks to Kyivan Rus’s glory.

Another important religious site, the Kyiv Monastery of the Caves, was founded in 1051. That same year, Yaroslav appointed Ilarion as the first non-Greek metropolitan of Rus. Greek works were translated into Church Slavonic—a liturgical language that developed into Rus’s religious and literary language. With most people illiterate, two-dimensional icons and wooden sculptures became widespread art forms and important connections between people and religion.

Rus’s economy prospered relative to other aspects. A French delegation reported “this land [Rus] is more unified, happy, powerful, and civilized than France.” Population estimates range from 3 to 12 million, but undoubtedly wealth created development and social differentiation. Though most were peasants, significant artisan and merchant classes emerged, with agricultural products, furs, honey, wax, and war captives sold south to Constantinople in exchange for luxuries.

Yaroslav’s other important initiative was compiling a unified legal code, the Rus Justice, considered progressive for protecting private property and replacing blood feuds with fines (adjusted according to victims’ socioeconomic status). Though Yaroslav appointed his sons to rule various Rus cities, each municipal authority had a council of nobles—the duma—and a town assembly that advised the prince and discussed daily matters. When a new prince assumed power, the assembly could negotiate agreements ensuring he wouldn’t overstep traditional authority.

Through marriage alliances, Yaroslav strengthened Rus’s connections with other European countries. He married a Swedish princess, married three daughters to kings of Norway, Hungary, and France, and arranged for his sons to marry Polish and Byzantine princesses, earning the title “father-in-law of Europe” and reflecting Kyivan Rus’s powerful status.

Decline and Fragmentation

Unfortunately, Kyivan Rus’s golden age ended shortly after Yaroslav’s death. During his lifetime, he had commanded his sons to rule various Rus cities, and on his deathbed, according to the Primary Chronicle, he admonished them not to fight among themselves as his brothers had. He instructed that after his death, his eldest son would succeed him, followed by the next eldest, intending brothers to successively hold supreme power. Though this arrangement worked briefly, the system of fraternal succession contradicted father-to-son inheritance traditions, especially as the number of princes grew, creating increasing conflicts between uncles and nephews competing for territory.

Meanwhile, rebellion erupted in Kyiv against Grand Prince Iziaslav (who crushed it with Polish reinforcements), and attacks from eastern steppe nomads, the Polovtsians, intensified. Many town assemblies became more autonomous, even demanding some princes step down and installing replacements, further increasing political instability.

The situation wasn’t irrecoverable. Volodymyr Monomakh (1113-1125), grandson of Yaroslav and descendant of Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX, restored some of Kyiv’s glory. Before succeeding to the throne, he had defeated Polovtsians in several military campaigns. After his father’s death, given his prestige could prevent further social unrest, Volodymyr Monomakh assumed the grand princely title. He successfully unified much fractured Rus territory and expanded commoners’ rights through judicial reforms.

The Final Collapse

After Volodymyr Monomakh’s death in 1125, Kyivan Rus declined rapidly and never recovered. Periodic political fragmentation returned as numerous princes sought autonomy within their domains. Through the 12th century, regions including Halych and Volhynia in the west, Chernihiv north of Kyiv, and Vladimir, Novgorod, and Smolensk in the far north achieved de facto independence. Kyivan Rus became “an entity with numerous centers connected by language, common religious culture, and dynasty, but largely independent and competitive with one another.”

Control of Kyiv remained tempting, leading to political instability (24 princes between 1146-1246) and even self-proclaimed princes joining military contests for the city.

Additionally, Kyivan Rus faced economic decline. Italian merchants opened and controlled trade routes to Constantinople, Crusaders attacked Constantinople, and the Dnieper trade route’s importance diminished significantly. Meanwhile, attacks from steppe nomads made controlling southern borders near the Black Sea more difficult. Efforts to reunite Rus cities and defeat these enemies ultimately failed.

The epic Song of Ihor’s Campaign, composed in 1187, documented Chernihiv Prince Ihor’s military expedition against the Polovtsians, whom Monomakh had previously conquered. It lamented:

“For brothers said to brothers:
‘This is mine, and that is mine too,’
and the princes began to say of small things
‘This is great,’ and forged discord among themselves,
and the pagans from all sides came
with victories onto the land of Rus.”

The final blow came from the Mongols. Originating in Central Asia, with highly mobile and well-commanded armies, they conquered much of Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. In 1237, Batu, grandson of Genghis Khan, captured cities in northeastern Rus including Suzdal and Vladimir. By 1240, Mongols attacked Kyiv. Despite citizens’ heroic defense, Kyiv ultimately fell. Most churches were burned, walls razed, and Kyiv’s glory vanished forever. The metropolitan of Kyiv moved to Vladimir in 1299, then to Moscow, symbolically and practically marking the end of Kyiv’s prominence.

Prince Danylo of Galicia-Volhynia (1237-1264) attempted to recapture Kyiv and expel the Mongols. He sought support from European countries including Poland and Hungary, and Pope Innocent IV even blessed his efforts in 1253, giving him a crown. Unfortunately, military aid never arrived, and Danylo had to submit to Mongol demands to dismantle defensive fortifications to avoid complete destruction. Despite failure, Danylo and his successors maintained rule over Galicia-Volhynia until 1349. The principality became a significant regional force, actively engaged in Polish affairs and receiving its own metropolitan from Constantinople. Danylo’s grandson Yurii even claimed the title “King of Rus.” Some commentators consider Galicia-Volhynia the first true “Ukrainian national state,” with its extensive connections to Western (non-Russian) culture contributing to western Ukraine’s contemporary European orientation and dynamism. However, in the 1340s, Galicia yielded to Polish assault, Volhynia fell under Lithuanian rule, and the last major Rus political entity on Ukrainian territory ended.

The Contested Legacy of Kyivan Rus

Before continuing our historical narrative, we must address what is perhaps Kyivan Rus’s most important and historically contentious question: Who inherits Rus’s legacy? Since Rus’s geographical area covered most of modern Ukraine, Belarus, and much of European Russia, Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Russians all claim Kyivan Rus as “their” first state. The crucial question: Did Rus civilization ultimately pass to the Russian Empire, or did it remain largely unknown, preserved in Ukraine?

Most Russian historical works consider Kyivan Rus part of Russian national history. Certainly