Introduction: The Power of Names in Chinese Culture

In traditional Chinese society, names carried far more significance than mere identifiers. They reflected cultural values, social hierarchies, and even spiritual beliefs. The naming practices of China’s Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) reveal a fascinating intersection of folk superstitions, literary aesthetics, and political considerations that continue to influence Chinese naming conventions today. From deliberately vulgar childhood nicknames meant to ward off evil spirits to the elaborate naming protocols of the imperial family, each choice carried deep meaning and purpose.

The Superstition Behind Childhood Pet Names

### The Practice of “Ugly” Nicknames

Chinese parents in the Song period frequently gave their children intentionally unpleasant pet names (乳名 rǔmíng), believing these would protect the child from early death. Historical records from the Dunhuang manuscripts reveal startling examples: names like “Residual Slave,” “Monk’s Slave,” “Ugly Slave,” and various “Dog” names (Ma Dog, Song Dog, Wei Dog). Even more shocking to modern sensibilities were names incorporating “Dung Heap” – with records showing individuals named Dung Heap Hu, Dung Heap Wang, and Dung Heap Fu.

This practice stemmed from the widespread belief that the King of Hell (阎罗 Yánluó) maintained a register of souls to claim. Parents reasoned that an unappealing name would make their child less likely to be selected when the King scanned his list. As one Song dynasty mirror inscription stated: “Mercury is the essence of yin, refined a hundred times to make this mirror. The eight trigrams’ energy is complete, guarding the spirit for eternal life.”

### Regional Variations in Pet Names

Not all childhood names were intentionally vulgar. The educated elite often chose more refined pet names. Su Shi (苏轼), the famous poet, was called “Tongwen” (同文) as a child, while his brother Su Zhe (苏辙) was “Maochen” (卯君). Huang Tingjian’s son was “Little Virtue” (小德), and Wang Anshi’s daughter was “Eldest Princess” (伯姬). Southern Chinese families frequently added “ge” (哥, “brother”) to boys’ names – a custom that continued into modern times, as seen with the childhood name of writer Lu Xun (鲁迅), called “Xunge” (迅哥).

The Complexities of Adult Naming

### The Transition from Childhood to Adult Names

As children matured, their naming became more formalized. Educated individuals typically had:
1. A childhood pet name (乳名 rǔmíng)
2. An official given name (大名 dàmíng)
3. A courtesy name (字 zì)
4. Often a literary name (号 hào)

The great poet Su Dongpo (苏东坡), for instance, was born with the pet name “Tongwen” (同文), given the formal name “Shi” (轼), took the courtesy name “Zizhan” (子瞻), and later adopted the literary name “Dongpo Jushi” (东坡居士, “Hermit of Eastern Slope”).

### The Etiquette of Name Usage

Different names were used in different contexts:
– Official documents used the formal given name
– Friends and colleagues used the courtesy name
– Elder family members might continue using the childhood name for intimacy

Historical records show even royalty followed these conventions. When the supposed Princess Roufu returned from captivity during the Southern Song, she addressed Emperor Gaozong by his childhood name, demonstrating their familial bond. Similarly, Emperor Xiaozong was called “Eldest Brother” (大哥 dàgē) by his father, using a common Song-era term for the senior male in a family rather than its modern meaning of “older brother.”

Gender and Naming: The Case of Women’s Names

### The Popularity of Reduplicated Names

Modern Chinese often use reduplicated syllables for girls’ names (e.g., Li Bingbing, Zhu Yuanyuan). This trend began in the Song dynasty. Examples include:
– Lu You’s daughter: Nünü (女女)
– Yang Wanli’s daughter: Runrun (闰闰, likely born in a leap month)
– Emperor Huizong’s daughters: Zhuzhu (珠珠) and Xuanxuan (嬛嬛)
– Court ladies: Xizhuzhu (席珠珠), Xifufu (奚拂拂), and Zheng Qiaoqiao (郑巧巧)

### The Social Stigma of Adult Women Using Reduplicated Names

While charming for girls, reduplicated names became socially problematic for adult women. They were associated with:
– Courtesans (e.g., Li Shishi 李师师)
– Singing girls
– Concubines
– Maidservants (like “Xiuxiu” 秀秀 from the story “The Jade Hairpin”)

Respectable women from scholar-official families adopted more formal names upon marriage. Lu You’s daughter Nünü (女女) became “Dingniang” (定娘); Su Shi’s wives were Wang Fu (王弗) and Wang Runzhi (王闰之); Xin Qiji’s daughters were named Qun (囷) and Xiu (秀).

Popular Naming Trends and Taboos

### Common Naming Patterns

Southern Song scholar Yu Cheng (俞成) criticized popular naming trends in his Yingxue Congshuo (萤雪丛说):
– Single-character names using 文 (culture), 武 (martial), 富 (wealth), or 贵 (nobility)
– Two-character names expressing admiration for historical figures:
– Xiyan (希颜) and Wanghui (望回) – aspiring to be like Confucius’ disciple Yan Hui
– Cihan (次韩) and Qiyu (齐愈) – hoping to equal Tang dynasty scholar Han Yu

Lu You’s name itself reflected this trend – his mother, admiring Qin Guan’s (秦观) poetry, named him “You” (游) with the courtesy name “Wuguan” (务观), hoping he would match Qin Guan’s literary talent.

### The Weight of Naming Taboos

Chinese naming taboos (避讳 bìhuì) were stringent, especially regarding:
– Imperial names
– Names of superiors
– Ancestors’ names

The famous saying “The magistrates are free to burn down houses, while the common people are forbidden even to light lamps” (只许州官放火，不许百姓点灯) originated when a Song magistrate named Tian Deng (田登) banned any use of characters sounding like “deng” (登), forcing the Lantern Festival (灯节) to be called the “Fire Lighting Festival” (放火节).

Imperial name taboos led to:
– Character changes (Zhao Guangyi 赵光义 changed from Zhao Kuangyi 赵匡义 to avoid his brother Emperor Taizu’s name)
– Food renaming (yams changed from “shuyao” 薯药 to “shanyao” 山药 to avoid Emperor Yingzong’s name “Zhao Shu” 赵曙)
– Object renaming (the “Universal Crown” 通天冠 became “Heaven-Receiving Crown” 承天冠 to avoid a taboo character)

The Numerical Naming Tradition

### Prevalence in Song and Yuan Dynasties

Contrary to the myth that numerical names resulted from Mongol naming restrictions during the Yuan dynasty, the practice was well-established in Song times. Examples include:
– Qin Guan’s descendants: Qin Xiaowu (秦小五), Qin Xiaoshi (秦小十), Qin Shiyi (秦十一)
– Legal case records: Zhu Qianer (祝千二), Qiu Daer (丘大二), Shen Jiuer (沈九二)
– Water Margin characters: Ruan Xiaoer (阮小二), Ruan Xiaowu (阮小五), Ruan Xiaoqi (阮小七)

These numbers represented clan generation rankings rather than birth order within nuclear families. A name like “Chou Baishi” (仇百十四) indicated the 114th male in his generation across an extended clan.

### The Case of the Ming Founding Emperor

Zhu Yuanzhang’s (朱元璋) original name, Zhu Chongba (朱重八), followed this pattern:
– “Chong” (重) meaning “another generation”
– “Ba” (八) indicating he was the eighth in his generation

His family’s numerical names:
– Father: Zhu Wusi (朱五四, “54”)
– Brothers: Zhu Chongliu (朱重六), Zhu Chongqi (朱重七)
– Ancestors: Zhu Sijiu (朱四九), Zhu Chuyi (朱初一), etc.

Imperial Naming Conventions

### The Elegance of Royal Names

Song emperors’ names carried profound meanings:
– Zhao Kuangyin (赵匡胤): “To assist descendants”
– Zhao Guangyi (赵光义): “To illuminate righteousness”
– Zhao Zhen (赵祯): “Auspicious”
– Zhao Xu (赵顼): “Jade-crowned”

### Complex Genealogical Systems

The imperial clan maintained intricate naming systems with generation characters:
1. Taizu’s Line:
– 1st: Kuang (匡)
– 2nd: De (德)
– 3rd: Wei (惟)
– 4th: Cong (从)
– … down to 13th: You (由)

2. Taizong’s Line:
– 1st: Kuang→Guang (匡→光)
– 2nd: Yuan (元)
– 3rd: Yun (允)
– … including the peculiar 7th generation “Bu” (不) names:
– Zhao Buqi (赵不器): “Not a vessel” (from Analects)
– Zhao Bumei (赵不昧): “Not ignorant”
– But also Zhao Budai (赵不呆): “Not stupid”, Zhao Bugan (赵不干): “Not dry”

3. Zhao Tingmei’s Line had inconsistent generational markers.

### The Five Elements Cycle

Later imperial names incorporated the five elements (五行 wǔxíng) in generational sequence:
– Ming Dynasty examples:
– Zhu Di (棣, wood) → Zhu Gaochi (高炽, fire)
– Fire → Zhu Zhanji (瞻基, earth)
– Earth → Zhu Qizhen (祁镇, metal)
– Metal → Zhu Jianshen (见深, water)
– Water → Zhu Youtang (祐樘, wood)

Conclusion: The Living Legacy of Ancient Naming Customs

The naming practices of imperial China reveal a civilization deeply concerned with cosmic harmony, social order, and familial continuity. While modern Chinese naming has simplified, echoes of these traditions persist – from the continued use of generation names in some families to the careful consideration of characters’ meanings and sounds. The Song dynasty’s blend of poetic elegance, folk superstition, and bureaucratic precision in naming reflects the rich tapestry of Chinese cultural history, where even the simplest name could embody profound philosophical concepts and social expectations.