A Nation Defiant: China’s Response to Japanese Aggression

When Japan launched its full-scale invasion of China in 1937, its military leaders arrogantly predicted they would conquer the nation within three months. This prediction would prove disastrously wrong against a civilization with 5,000 years of continuous history—a people whose resilience stemmed not just from wisdom and diligence, but from unyielding courage and an indomitable spirit that refused surrender even in the darkest hours.

By 1938, China’s situation appeared dire. The Japanese Imperial Army had captured Nanjing, Shanghai, and other major cities. China’s fledgling air force, numbering fewer than 300 combat aircraft at the war’s outset, had been decimated in the first year of fighting. Yet from this desperate situation emerged one of World War II’s most audacious psychological operations—a mission that would mark the first time any foreign aircraft penetrated Japanese airspace.

The Origins of Operation “Paper Bombing”

Chiang Kai-shek’s interest in striking Japan predated the full-scale war. As early as the 1930s, he had contemplated bombing “the enemy capital” to gain psychological advantage, though China lacked both the aircraft and technical capacity for such missions. The 1936 National Defense Operational Plan formally included provisions for bombing Tokyo, Osaka, and key industrial centers—a remarkably ambitious vision given China’s military disadvantages.

When war erupted in 1937, China’s air force possessed just 96 bombers, only 12 of which (6 Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.72 and 6 American Martin B-10 models) had sufficient range to potentially reach Japan. The Martin B-10s, with their 1,900 km range and 1.25-ton bomb capacity, became the focus of planning. By 1938, only two operational B-10s remained after cannibalizing parts from others.

Chiang initially considered hiring foreign pilots, but their demanded $100,000 per crew member (totaling $800,000 for two planes) proved prohibitive. More importantly, foreign mercenaries lacked the patriotic motivation essential for this high-risk mission. The task ultimately fell to Chinese pilots under Captain Xu Huansheng, a 32-year-old veteran who had served as Chiang’s co-pilot.

The Mission Takes Shape: From Bombs to Paper

Technical realities forced a radical rethinking of the operation. Calculations showed that even flying from forward bases, the B-10s couldn’t reach Tokyo with meaningful bomb loads and return safely. Striking closer targets like Nagasaki or Fukuoka remained possible, but with each plane carrying just two bombs, the physical damage would be negligible compared to the risk.

This led to a brilliant psychological gambit—instead of explosives, the planes would drop propaganda leaflets. The “paper bombs” would achieve multiple objectives: demonstrate China’s ability to reach Japan, undermine Japanese civilian morale, and showcase Chinese restraint by avoiding civilian casualties.

Captain Xu and his team meticulously planned the mission. They removed bomb bays to install extra fuel tanks, studied Japanese weather patterns, and practiced long overwater navigation—all without reliable maps of Japan. The leaflets, prepared in Japanese, combined anti-militarist appeals with factual accounts of Japan’s economic struggles under wartime burdens.

The Historic Flight: May 19-20, 1938

At 15:23 on May 19, two B-10s took off from Hankou Airport in Wuhan under utmost secrecy. After refueling in Quzhou near the coast, they launched again at 23:48 toward Japan. Xu’s first radio message pledged: “We respectfully lead all expedition members in saluting our supreme leader Chiang Kai-shek… vowing with sacrificial determination to complete this extraordinary mission.”

Flying east under cover of darkness, the planes avoided Japanese patrols by taking a southern route over the East China Sea. At 2:40 AM on May 20, they reached Nagasaki—where to their surprise, the city remained fully illuminated, its defenses unprepared. Over the next two hours, the bombers dropped over a million leaflets across Nagasaki, Fukuoka, Kurume, and Saga before turning home as Japanese anti-aircraft guns belatedly responded.

By 11:00 AM, both planes safely returned to Hankou. Xu later recalled: “Japan’s air defense capabilities were quite naive… Only when we were leaving did cities begin blackout procedures.” Japanese authorities initially refused to believe Chinese planes could penetrate their airspace, only confirming the breach after collecting the leaflets.

The Leaflets’ Message: Psychological Warfare

The propaganda materials combined moral appeals with economic arguments:

“To the Japanese People:
Our Chinese air force has come to your skies not to harm lives or property, but to show how your militarists commit atrocities across China… Whether you oppose war or have been deceived by militarist propaganda, the truth has been hidden from you…”

Another leaflet noted: “Since occupying Manchuria seven years ago, what have ordinary Japanese gained? Only heavier taxes, higher prices, poverty, hunger, disease and death—while military leaders grow rich.”

This messaging strategy reflected careful thought. By avoiding threats and focusing on shared suffering, the leaflets sought to drive a wedge between Japanese civilians and their military leadership—a sophisticated approach for psychological operations at the time.

Global Reactions and Historical Impact

The mission’s success reverberated internationally. Chinese media celebrated it as a moral and strategic victory. The Communist Party’s Xinhua Daily praised the “humanitarian expedition” (a term championed by Soong Mei-ling), while Nationalist papers highlighted its demonstration of Chinese capability.

Japanese media downplayed the incident, with Tokyo’s Asahi Shimbun calling it “a laughable trick” that wouldn’t shake public morale. But Western observers recognized its significance. The Associated Press noted it “proved China’s strength,” while Reuters observed it shattered Japan’s illusion of invulnerability. Most tellingly, the U.S. military took note—when planning the 1942 Doolittle Raid, American strategists studied this mission.

Captain Xu gained international fame, later being named by LIFE magazine among WWII’s twelve most famous pilots as “the first to bomb Japan.” Tragically, co-pilot Tong Yanbo died in a 1944 training accident, never seeing victory.

Legacy: Psychological Warfare and Symbolic Resistance

While causing no physical damage, the “paper bombing” achieved significant psychological impact. It demonstrated China’s resolve and technical capability at a time when few believed China could strike back. The mission’s humanitarian approach—choosing leaflets over bombs—contrasted starkly with Japan’s indiscriminate bombing of Chinese cities, garnering international sympathy.

Historically, the operation marked several firsts: the first foreign aircraft over Japan, the first aerial propaganda raid of WWII, and an early example of precision psychological operations. It showed how weaker militaries could use creative tactics to challenge stronger opponents—a lesson relevant to modern asymmetric warfare.

Most importantly, the mission symbolized Chinese resistance at humanity’s darkest hour. When the world expected China’s quick collapse, eight men in two aging bombers proved that spirit could overcome material disadvantage—a lesson that would define China’s ultimate victory after eight grueling years of war.