Discovery and Early Research (1930s-1950s)

The archaeological investigation of Liangzhu Culture began in 1936 when Shi Xingeng from Zhejiang Provincial West Lake Museum conducted surveys and three trial excavations in Liangzhu, Hang County. His groundbreaking 1938 report “Liangzhu” marked the formal beginning of scholarly research into this ancient civilization. Early archaeologists were immediately struck by the culture’s distinctive black pottery, which led them to initially classify Liangzhu as an eastern extension of the better-known Longshan Culture, famous for its similar black ceramic tradition.

During the 1950s and early 1960s, a series of Liangzhu sites discovered around Lake Tai gradually revealed more about this culture’s unique characteristics and helped define its geographical distribution. This growing body of evidence prompted renowned archaeologist Xia Nai to formally propose the name “Liangzhu Culture” in 1959, a designation quickly adopted by the academic community. However, the prevailing view still maintained that Liangzhu developed under Longshan influence.

Breakthroughs in Understanding (1970s)

The 1970s witnessed significant advances in Liangzhu research through excavations at key sites like Caoxieshan in Wuxian County and Zhanglingshan in Kunshan. Combined with deeper studies of neighboring prehistoric cultures (Hemudu, Majiabang, Songze, and Maqiao) and the application of radiocarbon dating, scholars made three crucial realizations:

1. The discovery of exquisite jade artifacts and high-status burials forced researchers to reevaluate Liangzhu’s economic development and social complexity
2. Liangzhu was properly situated within the newly established prehistoric cultural sequence of the Lake Tai region, confirming its indigenous origins
3. Absolute dating placed the culture between 3300-2250 BCE

These findings fundamentally changed perceptions of Liangzhu’s place in Chinese prehistory, shifting from seeing it as a peripheral Longshan derivative to recognizing it as an independent, advanced civilization.

Golden Age of Discovery (1980s)

The 1980s marked an exhilarating period for Liangzhu archaeology. Major excavations at Sidun (Wujin), Fuquanshan (Qingpu), Fanshan (Yuhang), and Yaoshan revealed astonishing artifacts that showcased Liangzhu’s exceptional craftsmanship and social organization:

– Elite tombs containing unprecedented quantities of finely worked jade
– Massive artificially constructed earth platforms for burial and ritual purposes
– Sophisticated material culture surpassing contemporary Neolithic societies

These discoveries naturally focused research on jade artifacts and monumental architecture, significantly advancing understanding of Liangzhu’s social development.

Modern Research Approaches (1990s-Present)

While jade studies and debates about Liangzhu’s state-level civilization continue, recent scholarship emphasizes:

– More rigorous cultural periodization
– Comprehensive publication of excavation reports
– Systematic, hypothesis-driven fieldwork
– Interdisciplinary approaches combining archaeology with environmental studies

This methodological shift reflects scholars’ desire to move beyond speculative theories toward evidence-based interpretations.

Geographic Distribution and Key Sites

Archaeologists have documented approximately 200 Liangzhu sites (though estimates suggest nearly 1,000 may exist), primarily concentrated around Lake Tai in northern Zhejiang and southern Jiangsu provinces. The culture’s core area lies west of the ancient coastline (Xieqiao-Taicang-Maqiao line), north of the old Qiantang River, east of Maoshan Mountain, and south of the ancient Yangtze River.

Major regional centers include:
– The Liangzhu site cluster (Yuhang, Zhejiang)
– Zhaolingshan (Kunshan, Jiangsu)
– Caoxieshan and Zhanglingshan (Wuxian)
– Sidun (Wujin)
– Fuquanshan (Qingpu, Shanghai)

The Liangzhu site group encompasses over 100 locations across a 34 km² area in Yuhang’s Pingyao, Anxi, and Liangzhu towns, divided into three zones:
1. Northern area between the East Tiaoxi River and Tianmu Mountain foothills
2. Southeastern zone around Xun Mountain
3. Western region centered on Mojiaoshan site

Monumental Architecture and Urban Planning

Liangzhu’s builders demonstrated remarkable engineering skills:

Yaoshan Site: This eastern hilltop location features a square altar with three distinct soil layers. The central “red earth platform” (7.6m east side) is surrounded by grayish soil and an outer yellow earth platform originally paved with pebbles. Twelve neatly arranged tombs yielded 2,582 jade objects.

Huiguanshan Site: This isolated hilltop (40×30m platform) contains an altar structure similar to Yaoshan with four associated tombs.

Mojiaoshan Site: This enormous artificial platform (300,000 m²) contains three mounds and features:
– Large rammed earth foundations
– Post holes
– Stone pits
– Drainage ditches

Recent discoveries include a possible 4.5km long embankment (30-50m wide, 1-6m high) between Pingyao’s Maoyuanling and Anxi’s Meiyuan, suggesting advanced water management.

Material Culture and Technological Achievements

Ceramics: Liangzhu pottery includes:
– Sand-tempered tripods (ding) and jars
– Fine clay wares (gray, black-coated, or orange-red with gray coating)
– Characteristic forms: fish-fin足 and T-shaped足 tripods, bamboo-joint stemmed dou cups, double-nosed hu jars

Stone Tools: Sophisticated agricultural implements like:
– Yue axes
– Stepped adzes
– Handled knives
– Multi-hole knives
– Weeding tools

Jade Work: Representing China’s Neolithic peak, Liangzhu jades feature:
– Exquisite craftsmanship (1mm-wide engraved lines)
– Ritual objects (cong cylinders, bi disks)
– Iconic deity/mask motifs
– Advanced techniques (relief carving, openwork)

The “Cong King” from Fanshan M12 (8.9cm tall, 6.5kg) and the “Yue Axe King” with deity/bird motifs exemplify this tradition.

Other Crafts:
– Lacquerware (including jade-inlaid cups)
– Textiles (134 threads/inch silk)
– Wooden architecture (preserved at Qianjiabu)

Social Organization and Belief Systems

Burial evidence reveals a four-tiered hierarchy:

1. Elite: Large tombs (3×1.5m) on ritual platforms with complete jade sets
2. Sub-elite: Fewer jades, some missing types
3. Middle-status: Minimal ritual jades
4. Commoners: Simple graves with daily utensils

The concentration of religious and military symbols (jade cong, yue axes) suggests theocratic rule combining spiritual and secular authority.

Liangzhu’s spiritual world focused on:
– Cosmic symbolism (cong cylinders as heaven-earth conduits)
– Deity worship (anthropomorphic motifs)
– Ritual altars (20 identified, varying in scale)

Environmental Context and Subsistence

During Liangzhu’s peak (6000-4000 BP):
– Climate was warmer/wetter than today
– Landscape transitioned from wetlands to arable land
– Rice agriculture dominated (found at Shuiliantian, Qianshanyang)
– Domesticated animals: water buffalo, dogs, pigs

Chronology and Periodization

Radiocarbon dates (21 available) place Liangzhu between 3300-2000 BCE. Scholars propose various periodization schemes (3-6 phases), but a general three-phase framework emerges:

1. Early (3300-2800 BCE): Retains Songze elements; initial jades
2. Middle (2800-2300 BCE): Cultural florescence; jade craftsmanship peaks
3. Late (2300-2000 BCE): Declining craftsmanship; external influences

Legacy and Unresolved Questions

Liangzhu’s sudden decline (c. 2000 BCE) remains debated, with possible factors including:
– Internal social stresses
– Environmental changes
– Interactions with Wangyoufang culture groups

While the succeeding Maqiao Culture occupied the region, its distinct traditions suggest cultural discontinuity, leaving Liangzhu’s ultimate fate an open question. Ongoing excavations at Guangfulin and Qianshanyang may provide answers, but for now, this first Chinese civilization continues to reveal its secrets gradually, rewriting our understanding of East Asia’s ancient past.