A Revolutionary Discovery in Shandong

In the spring of 1928, Chinese archaeology took a monumental leap forward when Wu Jinding first investigated the Chengziya site in Longshan Town, Licheng County, Shandong Province. This initial survey would spark a series of explorations that fundamentally altered our understanding of China’s prehistoric past. Wu returned to the site four more times in 1929, laying the groundwork for what would become one of China’s most significant archaeological discoveries.

The true breakthrough came in 1930-1931 when the Archaeology Group of the Institute of History and Philology at Academia Sinica conducted two major excavations under the leadership of Li Ji and later Liang Siyong. These excavations revealed a previously unknown Neolithic culture characterized by its distinctive polished black pottery. This culture would soon be named “Longshan Culture,” marking a pivotal moment in Chinese archaeology that paralleled the earlier discovery of the painted pottery Yangshao Culture in Henan’s Mianchi County.

The Four Stages of Longshan Research

Over seven decades of intensive study, Longshan Culture research has evolved through four distinct phases that reflect China’s archaeological maturation.

The pioneering first stage (1930s-1949) established foundational knowledge through key excavations. Beyond Chengziya, the 1936 excavation of the Liangchengzhen site in Rizhao under Liang Siyong and Yin Da uncovered over 50 Longshan tombs containing exquisite pottery, jade, bone, and stone artifacts. Liang’s 1939 synthesis identified three regional variants – coastal Shandong, northern Henan, and Hangzhou Bay – setting the framework for future research.

Post-revolutionary China ushered in the second research phase (1950s-1970s) with systematic surveys across Shandong. Archaeologists like An Zhimin began differentiating Shandong’s “classic” Longshan from central plain variants, while Xia Nai proposed recognizing the Hangzhou Bay region as a separate Liangzhu Culture. These taxonomic refinements allowed more precise cultural mapping.

The third phase (1970s-mid-1980s) saw excavations at major sites like Yinjiacheng and Donghaiyu reveal stratigraphic sequences showing Longshan’s development from Dawenkou Culture. Researchers focused on chronology, cultural origins, and social organization as archaeological methods grew more sophisticated.

Since the mid-1980s, Longshan studies have entered an analytical fourth phase. With over 1,000 identified sites, attention has turned to regional variation, social complexity, and civilizational origins. Discoveries of walled settlements, elite burials, proto-writing, and bronze artifacts have transformed our understanding of Longshan’s role in early Chinese state formation.

Cultural Characteristics and Technological Marvels

Longshan Culture represents the apex of Neolithic technological achievement in East Asia, particularly in ceramic production. Early period (2600-2300 BCE) pottery demonstrates remarkable sophistication – predominantly gray-black vessels with polished surfaces, thin walls, and elegant forms like the iconic gui pitchers with high necks and slender legs. The late period (2300-2000 BCE) saw further innovations including white-slipped pottery and complex vessel shapes with flanges and ring feet.

The crowning achievement was eggshell black pottery – vessels with walls just 0.5-1mm thick, weighing mere dozens of grams. These were likely ritual objects rather than utilitarian ware, representing ceramic technology that wouldn’t be surpassed for millennia. Advanced kiln designs featuring separate fireboxes and flues enabled controlled reduction firing at temperatures exceeding 1000°C.

Equally impressive were Longshan’s jade carvings. The Xizhufeng site yielded exquisite ceremonial objects including a 23cm composite headdress with turquoise inlays and openwork designs. The Liangchengzhen site produced a 17.8cm dark green jade tablet with intricate animal mask motifs – clear precursors to later Chinese ritual jades.

Social Complexity and Urban Revolution

Longshan society displayed clear social stratification. At Xizhufeng, elite tombs measuring over 6m long contained lacquered coffins, jade regalia, and dozens of pottery vessels, contrasting sharply with commoners’ simple pits. The Yinjiacheng cemetery revealed a pyramid-like structure with few elite burials dominating hundreds of modest graves.

The culture’s most transformative development was the emergence of walled settlements. Chengziya’s 20ha “convex”-shaped enclosure with gateways represents one of East Asia’s earliest cities. Other major centers include:
– Liangchengzhen (over 100ha)
– Dinggong (11ha with moat)
– Bianxianwang (5.7ha with nested enclosures)
– Jingyanggang (31ha elliptical plan)

These were not isolated phenomena but part of an urban network across Shandong. Construction techniques evolved from simple piled-earth walls to sophisticated rammed-earth foundations with sacrificial deposits – including human and animal remains suggesting ritualized building practices.

Agricultural Foundations and Craft Specialization

Longshan’s economic base combined millet agriculture with rice cultivation (pushed to unprecedented northern latitudes at Yangjiayuan), livestock husbandry (especially pigs, with some tombs containing 20+ mandibles), and specialized crafts.

Metallurgy emerged with copper artifacts at Salihe and other sites. A Salihe copper cone (23.2% zinc content) represents early brass production. Textile production advanced with finely made spindle whorls and 10-11 thread/cm fabric impressions on pottery.

Regional exchange networks are evidenced by:
– Jade from distant sources
– Ceramic stylistic borrowing
– Shared architectural techniques (e.g., plastered floors)
– Spread of staple crops

Spiritual World and Ritual Practices

Longshan spiritual life combined animism with emerging ancestor veneration. Divination using scorched animal bones presages Shang oracle practices. Elite tombs contained ritual jades and eggshell pottery suggesting developed ancestor cults.

The Xizhufeng headdress’s intricate iconography may represent shamanistic regalia. Foundational sacrifices (human and canine) at building sites indicate cosmology intertwining construction with spiritual renewal.

Legacy and Modern Significance

Longshan Culture’s importance extends far beyond archaeology. It represents:
1. The culmination of Neolithic development in eastern China
2. A critical transition to Bronze Age civilization
3. The foundation for later Chinese social and ritual structures
4. An independent center of early state formation

Contemporary research employs:
– Geophysical survey to map subsurface features
– Paleobotany to reconstruct agricultural systems
– Metallurgical analysis of early copper artifacts
– GIS modeling of settlement patterns

The 1990s discovery of a 11-character inscription at Dinggong (2200-2100 BCE) – possibly proto-writing – continues to spark debate about writing’s origins in China.

As excavations continue at sites like Liangchengzhen (where Sino-American projects have revealed planned urban layouts), Longshan Culture’s central role in understanding Chinese civilization’s origins becomes ever clearer. This sophisticated society, with its urban centers, craft specialization, and social hierarchy, represents one of humanity’s great cultural achievements – the dawn of civilization in East Asia.