Unearthing China’s Earliest Writing Systems

The discovery of Shang Dynasty writing systems revolutionized our understanding of early Chinese civilization. Among the various forms – including inscriptions on bronze vessels, pottery marks, and jade carvings – oracle bone script stands as the most numerous and representative. These late Shang period inscriptions from the Yinxu ruins represent a remarkably mature writing system, the product of a long developmental process stretching back through China’s prehistoric past.

Archaeological sites from China’s prehistoric era frequently reveal incised or painted symbols on pottery vessels, occasionally appearing on jade objects, bone artifacts, or turtle shells. These symbols generally fall into two categories: geometric designs that likely held no linguistic meaning, and pictographic symbols bearing striking resemblance to later oracle bone script. Scholars have identified some of these early symbols from Dawenkou culture pottery as primitive characters meaning “sun over mountain,” “axe,” and other concepts, suggesting the gradual emergence of written language.

The Evolution of Writing in Early and Middle Shang Periods

During the early and middle Shang periods, both simple markings and true writing coexisted. At the Zhengzhou Shang City site, archaeologists discovered over thirty types of symbols incised on pottery vessels like large-mouthed zun jars and dou stemmed dishes. Some markings likely represented capacity measurements, while others clearly depicted pictographs including turtle, bird, and eye symbols.

The 1953 discovery of inscribed ox bones at the Erligang site provided crucial evidence. One fragment bore ten characters reading partially “…earth sheep, day yichou divined, follow, receive…seventh month,” while another displayed the single character “have.” Debate continues about whether these represent late Shang writing or genuine early Shang inscriptions, but their significance is undeniable.

Additional finds at Zhengzhou and the Gaocheng Taixi site revealed characters for “stop,” “knife,” “arrow,” and “spear” strikingly similar to later Yinxu oracle bones. The Taixi site yielded over seventy inscribed pottery pieces, while Zhengzhou’s Xiaoshuangqiao site produced both incised symbols and vermilion-painted characters.

Though clearly part of the same writing system as oracle bones, these early and middle Shang inscriptions remain too fragmentary for comprehensive analysis. The true systematic writing with discernible patterns only becomes clearly visible with the Yinxu oracle bones.

The Golden Age of Oracle Bone Script

Since their 1899 discovery, approximately 150,000 inscribed oracle bones have been unearthed at Yinxu, with about 35,000 recovered through proper archaeological excavation. Three major finds stand out:

The 1936 H127 pit yielded 17,096 inscribed pieces – mostly turtle plastrons – including over 300 complete specimens. This early Wu Ding period cache contained various divination groups providing unparalleled insights into Shang writing’s development.

In 1973, Xiaotun South produced 5,335 inscribed items (mostly ox scapulae) from Kang Ding to Wen Ding reigns. Their clear stratigraphic relationships with pottery made them invaluable for dating studies, while their content revealed new military, astronomical, and craft-related vocabulary.

The 1991 Huayuanzhuang East H3 pit contained 1,583 pieces (689 inscribed), mostly large turtle shells with 300 complete inscribed plastrons. This Wu Ding-era cache featured exceptionally neat, small characters representing a distinct “non-royal” divination tradition by a high-ranking noble.

With over 5,000 distinct characters (about 1,000 deciphered), oracle bones demonstrate a fully functional writing system directly ancestral to modern Chinese. Their linguistic structures, character forms, and compositional principles show remarkable continuity across three millennia.

The Century-Long Journey of Oracle Bone Studies

Oracle bone research has progressed through three major phases:

The initial phase (1899-1928) saw collectors and epigraphers like Luo Zhenyu authenticate Yinxu as the source and identify the script as Shang writing. Wang Guowei’s 1917 work matching oracle bone royal names to Sima Qian’s records proved the Shang dynasty’s historicity.

The developmental phase (1928-1950) began with scientific excavations. Dong Zuobin established the ten criteria for dating oracle bones and created the five-period classification system still used today. Guo Moruo pioneered Marxist historical analysis of Shang society through oracle bone content.

The ongoing maturation phase (since 1950) has produced comprehensive works like the Collected Oracle Bone Inscriptions (41,956 pieces) and advanced dating methods through archaeological context. New theories about script development have emerged, including the classification into royal and non-royal divination traditions.

Archaeological Contexts Illuminating Oracle Bones

Archaeology has profoundly shaped oracle bone studies:

Excavations at Yinxu’s royal cemetery revealed sacrificial pits matching oracle bone descriptions of ritual human sacrifice, showing decreasing frequency from Wu Ding’s reign onward – exactly as the inscriptions record.

Stratigraphic analysis resolved dating controversies. The 1973 Xiaotun South finds proved so-called “Wen Wu Ding” inscriptions actually belonged to Wu Ding’s reign, while tomb associations showed certain inscription groups predated the classic “Bin Group” divinations.

Technical studies of carving techniques (like drill hole morphology) created new dating criteria. The distinctive drill shapes in early Wu Ding period inscriptions matched those in archaeologically dated strata, confirming their early placement.

The Broader Landscape of Shang Writing

Beyond oracle bones, Shang writing appeared on various media:

Bronze inscriptions grew from simple one- or two-character clan marks in middle Shang to longer (30+ character) late Shang texts recording rituals, awards, and military campaigns. Their bold, pictographic style contrasts with oracle bone script’s angular forms.

Pottery inscriptions (about 100 examples) mostly show pre-firing incisions of clan names, numerals, or brief records. Their simple content reflects utilitarian purposes.

Nearly 100 inscribed jade and stone objects (about 30 legible) bear short texts about warfare, rituals, or awards, often prominently displayed on weapons or ornaments.

The Enduring Legacy of Shang Writing

The Shang writing system represents one of humanity’s great intellectual achievements. From tentative pottery marks to sophisticated bronze inscriptions, it demonstrates Chinese civilization’s remarkable continuity. Oracle bones in particular provide our most direct window into early Chinese thought, recording everything from royal childbirths to astronomical observations.

Modern studies continue revealing new insights, whether through digital analysis of character forms or reinterpretations of ritual terminology. As the foundation of Chinese literary tradition and a bridge to the prehistoric past, Shang writing remains both a scholarly treasure and a living cultural inheritance, its characters still recognizable after three thousand years of evolution.