Unearthing the Origins of a Bronze Age Society

The fertile lands along the middle reaches of the Yellow River, historically known as the Central Plains (中原), witnessed one of China’s most significant Neolithic cultural developments – the Central Plains Longshan period cultures. Centered in what is now Henan Province, this archaeological complex emerged during the late Neolithic period (approximately 2600-1900 BCE) as the successor to the Yangshao and Miaodigou Phase II cultures.

Archaeologists first encountered these remains in the 1930s-40s at sites like Xiaotun in Anyang and Wangyufang in Yongcheng. Initially lumped together with the Shandong Longshan culture under the broad “Longshan” designation, these central Chinese manifestations were later distinguished as the Henan Longshan or Central Plains Longshan culture. However, modern research reveals this was not a monolithic culture but rather a constellation of related regional variants including the Wangwan Phase III, Houtang Phase II, Taosi, and Keshengzhuang cultures.

Cultural Development Through Three Key Stages

The understanding of these cultures evolved through three major phases of archaeological discovery:

1. Initial Recognition (1930s-40s): Liang Siyong’s groundbreaking work at the Houtang site established the cultural sequence of Yangshao → Longshan → Shang through stratigraphic layers. This period broadly categorized all gray-black pottery cultures across northern China as “Longshan.”

2. Regional Differentiation (1950s-70s): As more sites were discovered across Shaanxi, Henan, Hebei and Shanxi, archaeologists began distinguishing provincial variants like Shandong Longshan, Henan Longshan and Shaanxi Longshan cultures. The Liangzhu culture of the Yangtze Delta was separately identified.

3. Complex Understanding (1980s-present): Further excavations revealed significant internal diversity, leading to recognition of distinct cultures like the Taosi and Keshengzhuang. The concept of a “Longshan Era” emerged, emphasizing shared characteristics across regional cultures during this transitional period toward Bronze Age civilization.

The Wangwan Phase III Culture: Heart of the Central Plains

As the dominant Central Plains culture, the Wangwan Phase III (named after its type site near Luoyang) demonstrates remarkable social complexity:

### Settlement Patterns and Urbanization
– Over 600 sites identified in central Henan
– Settlement hierarchy with large centers (40-100 hectares) and smaller villages
– Six walled settlements discovered, including:
– Wangchenggang (30 ha with palace foundations)
– Haojiatai (3.2 ha with orderly residential quarters)
– Guchengzhai (18 ha with possible ritual structures)

### Technological and Economic Advances
– Sophisticated ceramic production featuring wheel-thrown gray ware with basket, cord and square patterns
– Early metalworking evidenced by copper slag and bronze fragments
– Advanced agriculture with millet as staple crop, supplemented by rice in some areas
– Specialized craft production of jade, bone and stone tools

### Social Differentiation and Ritual Practices
– Human and animal foundation sacrifices at building sites
– Divination using animal scapulae
– Contrast between elite burials with rich grave goods and simple commoner graves
– Appearance of possible early writing symbols

The Houtang Phase II Culture: Northern Neighbors

Flourishing in northern Henan and southern Hebei, this culture shows distinct characteristics:

– Circular and rectangular semi-subterranean dwellings, some with white lime plaster floors
– Sophisticated water management with wooden-frame wells up to 11m deep
– Evidence of violent practices including skull cups and scalping
– Early urban centers like Mengzhuang (14 ha walled settlement)

The Taosi Culture: A Glimpse of Early State Formation

In southern Shanxi’s Linfen Basin, the enormous Taosi site (280 ha) reveals:

– Three nested walled enclosures suggesting hierarchical urban planning
– Astronomical observatory structure with 13 pillars for solar observations
– Elite burials with lacquered wooden furniture, musical instruments, and jade ritual objects
– Early copper metallurgy (bell and gear-shaped ornament)
– Possible early writing (red-painted graph on pottery)

Cultural Legacy and Historical Significance

These Central Plains cultures represent the critical transition from Neolithic societies to China’s Bronze Age civilizations:

1. Technological Foundations: Ceramic, metallurgical and architectural advances paved the way for Shang dynasty bronze technology.

2. Social Complexity: Settlement hierarchies, craft specialization and wealth differentiation indicate emerging social stratification.

3. Cultural Continuity: Many elements (divination, ritual vessels, urban planning) continued into the Shang and Zhou periods.

4. Historical Geography: These cultures occupied the “Central States” region that would become the heartland of Chinese civilization.

Ongoing archaeological work continues to reveal how these late Neolithic societies laid the groundwork for China’s first dynasties, making the Central Plains Longshan cultures essential for understanding the origins of Chinese civilization. The discovery of early writing, bronze technology, and complex urban centers suggests these societies stood at the threshold of the historic era, their legacy enduring in the cultural traditions that followed.