From Matrilineal to Patrilineal: A Societal Revolution

The period between 4000-3000 BCE marked a profound transformation in Chinese prehistory, as advanced regions transitioned from matrilineal to patrilineal clan societies. This shift coincided with the rapid development of private property systems and the gradual disintegration of primitive communal organizations – clear indicators of emerging civilization. Archaeological evidence from this era reveals sophisticated cultures across China’s major river basins:

In the Yellow River region, we find middle-late Yangshao culture, Miaodigou Phase II culture, and middle-late Dawenkou culture. The Liao River basin shows late Hongshan culture and Xiaoheyan culture, while the Yangtze River region features late Daxi culture, Qujialing culture, Xuejiagang culture, Songze culture, and early Liangzhu culture remains. The Pearl River Delta contributed the Xiantouling culture.

This societal transformation manifested most visibly in settlement patterns. Communities became hierarchically organized, with a few central settlements containing special high-status structures surrounded by numerous smaller villages. The late Yangshao site at Dadiwan in Gansu provides a striking example – its Building F901 covered 290 square meters with a distinctive “front hall, rear chambers, and side rooms” layout. This monumental structure, elevated on the northern high ground, contained ceremonial vessels rather than everyday items, suggesting its role as a tribal center or early palace prototype.

The Rise of Complex Settlements and Early Urbanism

Settlement organization grew increasingly sophisticated during this period. At the late Dawenkou culture site of Yuchisi in Anhui, archaeologists uncovered 80 interconnected houses arranged in rows around a central plaza, surrounded by an oval-shaped moat. This central settlement coordinated with 15 smaller surrounding communities, demonstrating emerging regional hierarchies.

Most significantly, we witness the birth of China’s earliest urban centers – a revolutionary development in prehistoric settlement patterns. The circular walled settlement at Chengtoushan in Hunan, constructed around 4000 BCE during the Daxi culture period, represents China’s earliest known prehistoric city. Other early urban centers include nine walled settlements from the Qujialing culture, the Dantu site in Shandong from late Dawenkou culture, and the Xishan site in Zhengzhou from late Yangshao culture.

Architectural technology advanced considerably as well. The previously common semi-subterranean dwellings gave way to above-ground structures with more complex designs. Multi-room dwellings became prevalent across various cultures, reflecting changes in family organization. At sites like Dahecun in Zhengzhou, archaeologists found interconnected two- and four-room houses, sometimes with additional interior partitions. The 79-meter-long structure at Xiawanggang in Xichuan contained 29 rooms organized into 17 residential units – physical evidence of extended patriarchal families containing multiple nuclear households.

Technological and Economic Advancements

Agricultural production intensified during this period, maintaining the northern millet/southern rice dichotomy while occasionally mixing crops in suitable regions. Improved stone tools appeared, including shouldered spades and rectangular knives with holes for rope attachment – designs that increased efficiency. Pig domestication became particularly significant, with pig mandibles and skulls frequently buried as status symbols.

Ceramic technology saw crucial innovations, with fast potter’s wheels first appearing in late Yangshao and Dawenkou cultures – precursors to the wheel-throwing revolution that would follow. Textile production achieved a world-historic breakthrough with the emergence of silk. Evidence from sites like Xiyincun in Shanxi (3800 BCE) and Qingtai in Henan (3500 BCE) reveals the progressive development of sericulture from early wild cocoon use to sophisticated woven and dyed fabrics.

Jade working emerged as a hallmark of late Neolithic cultures, with regional variations in style and symbolism. The Hongshan culture produced distinctive jade items like hoof-shaped hair tubes and coiled dragon pendants. The Lingjiatan site in Anhui yielded extraordinary jade artifacts including human figures, ceremonial weapons, and composite animal designs, showcasing advanced techniques like openwork carving and tubular drilling.

The Consolidation of Patriarchy

Archaeological evidence clearly demonstrates the establishment of patrilineal society during this period. Pottery and stone phallus objects (known as “zu”) appear across multiple cultures, representing male fertility cults. At the Hongshanmiao site in Henan, burial urns for young women were decorated with painted or sculpted male genitalia – likely reflecting rituals to ensure fertility under the new patriarchal order.

Burial practices further confirm this social transformation. Joint burials of adult males and females (presumed spouses) appear in Dawenkou, Yangshao, and Songze cultures, consistently positioned with the male on the left. Some graves show particularly stark gender hierarchies, such as one at Dadunzi where a man was buried in extended position while a woman lay crouched at his feet. These burials, along with occasional father-child interments, clearly demonstrate the establishment of male-dominated family structures.

Social Stratification and Emerging Inequality

The late Neolithic period witnessed growing social differentiation, both between settlements and within communities. The Dawenkou cemetery in Shandong provides compelling evidence, with 133 tombs divided into four groups representing different family lineages. The northern group stood out conspicuously, with grave goods several times more numerous than poorer groups. Particularly striking is Tomb M10, containing over 110 exquisite objects including jade ornaments, ivory carvings, and rare crocodile leather items.

Wealth disparities became increasingly marked through differential pig offerings – a key status indicator. At Dawenkou, 43 tombs contained 96 pig skulls, with one elite burial holding 14. Other sites like Silihe and Lingyanghe preferred pig mandibles, with one Lingyanghe grave containing 33 specimens. These practices clearly reflect emerging social hierarchies.

The Huating site in Jiangsu presents an even more dramatic case of social stratification. Ten elite graves contained over 900 objects, including Liangzhu-style jades, and shockingly, 18 human sacrifices – mostly children and adolescents. Scholars debate whether these represent victorious Liangzhu warriors or local elites adopting foreign customs, but either interpretation points to severe social tensions and the rise of coercive power.

The Niuheliang site of Hongshan culture offers another striking example of social differentiation. This massive ritual complex covers 50 square kilometers with a “Goddess Temple” at its center. The stone cairn tombs show clear hierarchy – large central burials for high-status individuals surrounded by smaller graves, all containing only jade offerings. The three-tiered circular altar and square/round cairns suggest sophisticated religious practices reinforcing social stratification.

This period laid crucial foundations for Chinese civilization, establishing patterns of urbanism, social organization, and technological innovation that would endure for millennia. The archaeological record reveals a society in dramatic transition – developing complex institutions, sharp status distinctions, and new forms of power that would eventually give rise to China’s historic dynasties.