The year 1862 marked a pivotal moment in the history of the Qing Empire. It was the first year of the Tongzhi reign and the beginning of a new era characterized by significant internal and external reforms. This period saw the Qing court embark on a complex journey of modernization and political restructuring, driven by urgent lessons learned from military defeats and foreign incursions. Central to this transformation was the establishment of a dual regency under Prince Gong and the two empress dowagers, Cixi and Ci’an, an arrangement that would shape the empire’s policy and governance during a turbulent period. This article explores the historical context, key events, cultural impacts, and enduring legacy of the Qing government’s reform efforts initiated in 1862.

Historical Context: The Qing Empire in Crisis

By the early 1860s, the Qing dynasty was reeling from internal rebellions and external threats. The devastating Taiping Rebellion by Anglo-French forces in 1860 symbolized the Qing’s vulnerability and triggered a profound sense of crisis among the ruling elite.

The death of Emperor Xianfeng in 1861 left a power vacuum. His young son, the Tongzhi Emperor, ascended the throne as a child, necessitating a regency. The political landscape rapidly shifted as Prince Gong and the two empress dowagers assumed joint control. Both Prince Gong and the empress dowagers were eyewitnesses to the empire’s recent calamities, having experienced the foreign military superiority firsthand and witnessed the fall of Beijing. Their shared trauma fostered a sense of urgency and determination to modernize the Qing state through adopting Western knowledge and reforming its administrative structures.

The Dual Regency: A New Political Framework

The regency under Prince Gong alongside Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci’an represented a unique dual-headed governance model. This arrangement was both a response to the fragile condition of imperial authority and a strategic balance of power within the Manchu ruling class. Prince Gong, a seasoned statesman and diplomat, had been instrumental in negotiating with Western powers during the Second Opium War, while the empress dowagers brought the imperial family’s influence and legitimacy to the administration.

This dual leadership sought to reconcile the entrenched interests of the Manchu aristocracy with the pressing need to harness Han Chinese talent and expertise. The Qing court’s traditional Manchu-centric hierarchy had long been a source of tension, both within the government and among the broader population. The regency aimed to stabilize internal governance through a new political compact that acknowledged these realities.

The Manchu-Centric Reform Agenda

Despite the pragmatic inclusion of Han officials, the core ideology underpinning the reforms retained a strong Manchu identity. The ruling elite emphasized the preservation and strengthening of Manchu dominance as the basis of Qing legitimacy. This “Manchu-first” consciousness influenced policy decisions and personnel appointments during the Tongzhi era.

Prince Gong and the empress dowagers, particularly Cixi, were keenly aware of the need to restore Manchu prestige and authority, which had been undermined by the empire’s recent crises. This was evident in their cautious approach to reform: they sought to modernize the military and bureaucracy without conceding the political primacy of the Manchus. The tension between reform and tradition became a defining feature of the period.

The Legacy of Sushun: Political Repression and Reconciliation

To fully understand the reform dynamics of the Tongzhi era, it is essential to revisit the legacy of Sushun, a powerful Manchu official during Emperor Xianfeng’s reign. Sushun was known for his authoritarian style and a strict approach toward both Manchu and Han officials. Under his administration, the Qing government aggressively pursued anti-corruption campaigns, including the prosecution of high-ranking officials implicated in bribery scandals.

Sushun’s efforts to cleanse the bureaucracy were uncompromising. For example, in 1858, he dismantled a major bribery case involving university graduates and senior officials, resulting in executions and dismissals. His relentless pursuit of corruption extended to a high-profile investigation in 1861, which culminated in the burning of critical government archives in an act of desperation by the Ministry of Revenue to evade his scrutiny.

However, Sushun’s harsh politicking and concentration of power alienated many courtiers and officials, culminating in his execution in 1861. Following his death, the Qing court relaxed its crackdown on corruption. The new regency under Prince Gong and the empress dowagers chose conciliation over repression, seeking to rebuild loyalty among officials through more lenient governance.

Rebuilding the Bureaucracy: From Coercion to Conciliation

With Sushun removed, the Qing leadership shifted tactics. Empress Dowager Cixi, in particular, adopted a more tolerant and inclusive approach to governance. She prioritized restoring the morale and cohesion of the bureaucratic class, recognizing that a cooperative administration was essential for implementing reforms and combating internal rebellions.

Cixi’s administration discouraged overly aggressive investigations into official misconduct, emphasizing stability and harmony over legalistic purges. Her directives to inspectors of the imperial examinations, for example, underscored the importance of diligence without causing unnecessary disruption. When officials loyal to her were accused of corruption or malfeasance, she often dismissed such charges as routine internal power struggles rather than genuine threats to the state.

This pragmatic governance style fostered a more stable political environment, albeit at the cost of tolerating some degree of corruption and inefficiency. It reflected the delicate balancing act required to maintain the empire’s fragile unity during a period of rapid change.

Balancing Han and Manchu Interests

A critical challenge of the 1862 reforms was managing the complex ethnic dynamics within the Qing Empire. The Manchu ruling class was a minority governing a vast Han majority, and tensions between these groups had persisted throughout the dynasty’s history.

The Qing court recognized the indispensability of talented Han officials in military and civil administration, especially as the Taiping Rebellion devastated much of southern China. Prominent Han leaders such as Zeng Guofan, Hu Linyi, Zuo Zongtang, and Li Hongzhang played pivotal roles in suppressing the rebellion and restoring imperial control. Their military prowess and administrative skills were crucial to the empire’s survival.

The regency continued to rely heavily on these Han figures, maintaining a pragmatic approach that acknowledged their importance. At the same time, reforms sought to recalibrate the balance of power by restoring Manchu privileges and influence, which had been eroded during the previous decades of turmoil.

This dual strategy aimed to leverage Han talent for practical governance while reinforcing Manchu dominance as the dynasty’s political foundation.

The Military Modernization Initiative

One of the hallmark reforms initiated in 1862 was the modernization of the Qing military. The empire’s humiliating defeats at the hands of Western powers underscored the urgent need to upgrade weaponry, training, and tactics.

Under Prince Gong’s leadership, the court authorized the dispatch of selected military personnel abroad to study contemporary Western military science and technology. This program involved sending approximately 450 elite Eight Banner soldiers and 10 Green Standard troops overseas for new-style military training.

This initiative was groundbreaking. It represented one of the earliest systematic efforts by a traditional imperial power to engage directly with Western military methods. The trainees were expected to return with knowledge that could help transform the Qing armed forces into a modern, disciplined, and technologically equipped institution capable of defending the empire against foreign aggression and internal rebellion.

Cultural Impacts of the Reform Movement

The reform efforts starting in 1862 were not merely administrative or military in nature; they also had profound cultural implications. The Qing elite’s exposure to Western technology and ideas sparked debates about the role of tradition, the nature of sovereignty, and the future of the Chinese state.

The regency’s cautious embrace of Western knowledge marked a departure from earlier attitudes that had largely rejected foreign influence. The trauma of military defeats and the loss of sovereignty instilled a pragmatic willingness among the leadership to selectively adopt Western innovations while preserving Confucian values and Manchu identity.

This cultural negotiation shaped the broader Self-Strengthening Movement, which sought to reconcile modernization with traditional Chinese civilization. It set the stage for intellectual currents that would later fuel reformist and revolutionary movements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Legacy of 1862: Foundations of Modern China

The reforms initiated in 1862 laid important groundwork for the Qing dynasty’s survival into the late 19th century and the gradual modernization of China. While the Qing state ultimately struggled to fully implement these reforms or overcome internal weaknesses, the Tongzhi era marked a critical turning point.

The dual regency’s policies represented the first concerted attempt to adapt the imperial system to a rapidly changing world. By balancing Manchu dominance with Han participation, embracing Western knowledge, and tempering political repression with administrative conciliation, the Qing rulers sought to restore stability and strengthen the state.

Though limited in scope and uneven in execution, these reforms influenced subsequent efforts such as the Self-Strengthening Movement and the Hundred Days’ Reform. They also contributed to shaping the complex dynamics of ethnicity, governance, and modernization that would define China’s path into the modern era.

Conclusion

The year 1862 stands as a landmark in Qing history—a moment when the dynasty confronted its vulnerabilities and began the arduous task of transformation. The dual regency of Prince Gong and the empress dowagers embodied both the challenges and aspirations of a regime striving to reconcile tradition with innovation. Their reforms, forged in the crucible of crisis, set in motion processes that would reverberate through China’s political and cultural evolution for decades to come.

Understanding this period provides valuable insight into the Qing dynasty’s resilience and the historical roots of China’s modernization, highlighting the complex interplay of power, ethnicity, and reform in one of the world’s oldest continuous civilizations.