The Fragile Succession Crisis of the Later Han

The Later Han Dynasty (25–220 CE) was plagued by a recurring problem: emperors frequently died without male heirs. Emperor Huan (r. 146–168), for instance, had no surviving sons, forcing the court to select a successor from a collateral branch of the imperial family—Emperor Ling (r. 168–189). Tragically, Emperor Ling himself lost several infant sons, a common misfortune in an era of high child mortality.

To protect their children, families in ancient China sometimes practiced symbolic abandonment or temporary fosterage—a custom shared by many cultures worldwide. Emperor Ling’s two surviving sons were raised under such arrangements:

– Liu Bian (the “Shi Hou”): Born to Empress He, he was entrusted to a Daoist priest named Shi to ensure his survival.
– Liu Xie (the “Dong Hou”): Born to Lady Wang, a concubine, he was raised by Emperor Ling’s mother, Empress Dowager Dong.

When Emperor Ling died in April 189 at age 34, these two boys—aged 14 and 9, respectively—became pawns in a vicious power struggle. The real conflict, however, lay not with the children but with the factions backing them.

The Factions at War

### The Empress He Faction
Empress He’s brother, He Jin, served as Grand General and commanded the military. A former butcher, He Jin owed his rise to his sister’s position. He naturally favored Liu Bian’s succession to secure his family’s dominance.

### The Eunuch Faction
The eunuchs, led by Jian Shuo, feared He Jin’s growing power. Emperor Ling, on his deathbed, had secretly endorsed Liu Xie, believing him more capable than the “unimpressive” Liu Bian. The eunuchs saw this as their chance to retain influence.

### Empress Dowager Dong’s Ambition
Emperor Ling’s mother, Empress Dowager Dong, was a formidable figure notorious for her greed (she allegedly encouraged her son’s infamous “sale of official posts”). She backed Liu Xie, partly to spite Empress He and partly out of genuine affection for the boy. Her nephew, Dong Zhong, a high-ranking general, bolstered her faction.

The Power Struggle Unfolds

### Jian Shuo’s Failed Plot
Jian Shuo attempted to assassinate He Jin by luring him into the palace, but a sympathetic eunuch, Pan Yin, warned He Jin at the last moment. He Jin retreated, marshaled his troops, and forced the court to declare Liu Bian emperor. Jian Shuo was later betrayed by another eunuch, Guo Sheng, and executed.

### The Purge of the Dong Faction
With the eunuchs temporarily neutralized, He Jin turned on Empress Dowager Dong. Citing her “improper” residence in the capital (as a “dowager from a collateral branch”), he exiled her. The humiliated dowager died shortly after—likely from stress or foul play. Her nephew, Dong Zhong, committed suicide under military siege.

The Final Reckoning: The Eunuch Massacre

He Jin’s victory was short-lived. The deeper conflict—between the scholar-officials (“Qingliu”) and the eunuchs (“Zhuoliu”)—remained unresolved.

### Yuan Shao’s Radical Proposal
Yuan Shao, a charismatic aristocrat from the illustrious “Four Generations of Three Dukes” family, urged He Jin to exterminate all eunuchs. He Jin, eager to prove himself beyond his butcher origins, agreed but hesitated, recalling the failed 188 coup by Dou Wu.

### The Fatal Mistake: Summoning Dong Zhuo
To tip the scales, He Jin summoned regional warlords—including the brutal Dong Zhuo—to the capital. Cao Cao, then a mid-ranking officer, warned against this, predicting chaos. His advice was ignored.

### The Eunuchs Strike Back
Learning of the plot, the eunuchs acted first. In August 189, they lured He Jin into the palace and beheaded him. Yuan Shao and his brother Yuan Shu retaliated by storming the palace, slaughtering over 2,000 eunuchs—including those unrelated to the conspiracy.

The Aftermath: Dynasty’s End

The violence spiraled out of control:
– Dong Zhuo arrived, deposed Liu Bian, and installed Liu Xie (Emperor Xian).
– He Jin’s faction was decimated.
– The Han Dynasty, already weakened, collapsed into the Three Kingdoms era.

Legacy and Lessons

1. The Perils of Weak Succession: The Han’s lack of clear heirship rules invited factionalism.
2. Militarization of Politics: He Jin’s reliance on warlords set a precedent for future strongmen like Cao Cao.
3. The Eunuch Problem: Their unchecked power and violent end underscored institutional decay.

Emperor Ling’s death wasn’t just the passing of a ruler—it was the catalyst that shattered an empire. The chaos that followed birthed legends like Cao Cao, Liu Bei, and Sun Quan, immortalized in Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Yet for the millions who lived through it, the “Great Disorder” was a tragedy of ambition, miscalculation, and bloodshed.