A Throne in Crisis: The Failing Health of Emperor Xianfeng

By July 1861, Emperor Xianfeng’s tuberculosis had reached a critical stage. Each cough brought up blood-streaked phlegm—a grim omen that the 30-year-old ruler of the Qing Dynasty was running out of time. Two figures watched his decline with particular urgency: the ambitious Consort Yi (later Empress Dowager Cixi) and the powerful minister Sushun. Both recognized that the emperor’s impending death would trigger a seismic power struggle over who would control the next child emperor—Xianfeng’s five-year-old son Zaichun.

This was no ordinary succession crisis. The Qing Empire, already weakened by the Opium Wars and Taiping Rebellion, now faced internal disintegration. Xianfeng’s decisions in his final days would determine whether imperial authority remained with the royal family or fell to competing factions.

The Ghost of History: Sushun’s Deadly Proposal

Sushun, leader of the conservative Manchu faction, advocated for a brutal historical precedent—the “Gouyi Story” from Han Dynasty lore. Just as Emperor Wu had ordered the execution of Consort Gouyi to prevent maternal interference after his death, Sushun pressed Xianfeng to eliminate Consort Yi. His arguments carried chilling historical weight:

– Nurhaci’s Precedent: In 1626, Emperor Nurhaci’s death had led to the forced suicide of his consort Abahai (mother of regent Dorgon) to prevent her political influence
– Dynastic Threats: Sushun warned that Consort Yi’s political acumen could make her another Empress Lü or Wu Zetian
– Manchu Prophecy: He invoked the legendary curse by Yehe chief Buyangu—that “even one surviving Yehe Nara woman would destroy the Jianzhou Jurchens” (the Qing imperial clan)

Sushun’s faction, including allies Zaiyuan and Duanhua, proposed alternatives: either immediate execution or a posthumous edict demanding Consort Yi’s殉葬 (burial alive with the deceased emperor).

Consort Yi’s Countergame: A Mother’s Survival Strategy

While Sushun plotted her demise, Consort Yi prepared her own endgame. Her dual concerns reveal the perilous position of imperial women:

1. Regency Control: With Prince Gong (Xianfeng’s brother) out of favor, she anticipated Sushun would dominate as regent
2. Personal Survival: Court rumors suggested Xianfeng might order her death to prevent interference

Her strategy centered on two assets—her son Zaichun and the emperor’s lingering affection. Historical accounts describe how she:
– Restricted Zaichun’s movements to remain under her watch
– Played on Xianfeng’s paternal instincts by emphasizing their son’s vulnerability
– Studied precedents of regency governments from Ming and earlier Qing history

The Emperor’s Dilemma: Between Mercy and Realpolitik

Xianfeng’s wavering reveals the human drama behind imperial decisions. His conflicting thoughts show a ruler torn between emotion and statecraft:

For Sparing Consort Yi
– Gratitude for bearing his only male heir
– Memories of her comforting presence during political crises
– Pity for Zaichun becoming motherless at age six

For Executing Consort Yi
– Fear of repeating Empress Lü’s usurpation (195–180 BCE)
– Anxiety about Manchu traditions of preventing harem interference
– Sushun’s warnings about her political ambitions

A pivotal moment came when Zaichun innocently told his father “I wasn’t thinking anything”—highlighting the child’s vulnerability. This emotional appeal ultimately stayed Xianfeng’s hand.

The Seal Solution: Xianfeng’s Constitutional Innovation

On his deathbed (July 1861), Xianfeng implemented an unprecedented power-sharing system using two seemingly insignificant seals:

| Seal | Recipient | Political Role |
|————|——————|—————-|
| 御赏 “Imperial Appreciation” | Empress Dowager Ci’an | Required to validate all edicts |
| 同道堂 “Hall of Shared Principles” | Zaichun (held by Consort Yi) | Needed to countersign decrees |

This created China’s first constitutional monarchy mechanism:
1. Eight Regent Ministers (including Sushun) would draft policies
2. Two Dowagers (Ci’an and Cixi) held veto power via the seals
3. Checks and Balances: No document became law without both seals

The Final Edicts: A Flawed Masterpiece?

Xianfeng’s last decrees on July 16, 1861 established:
1. Zaichun’s succession as the Tongzhi Emperor
2. An eight-member regency council dominated by Sushun’s faction

His intended “three-legged” power structure (ministers, dowagers, emperor) collapsed within months when:
– Consort Yi (now Cixi) allied with Prince Gong
– They staged the Xinyou Coup (November 1861), executing Sushun
– Established the first Qing regency led by women

Legacy: How Xianfeng’s Death Reshaped China

The 1861 succession crisis had far-reaching consequences:

Constitutional Experiment
Xianfeng’s seal system became a prototype for later power-sharing attempts, including the 1898 Hundred Days’ Reform.

Rise of Cixi
The failure to eliminate Consort Yi allowed her 47-year rule as Empress Dowager Cixi—profoundly impacting China’s response to Western imperialism.

Modern Parallels
The crisis illustrates universal governance dilemmas:
– Balancing strong leadership against checks on power
– Managing transitions from charismatic to institutional rule
– The risks of personalizing state structures

As historians like William Rowe note, Xianfeng’s deathbed arrangements represented “the last attempt at traditional Manchu power-sharing before the slide toward absolutism under Cixi.” The tragic irony? The very precautions meant to prevent harem interference ultimately enabled China’s most famous female ruler.

The 1861 crisis remains studied not just for its dramatic personal stakes, but as a case study in how succession systems succeed or fail—a lesson with relevance from ancient Rome to modern boardrooms. Xianfeng’s coughs signaled more than a dying emperor; they marked the last breaths of one constitutional vision for China, and the painful birth of another.