A Dynasty in Decline: The Troubled Reign of Emperor Xianfeng

The mid-19th century was a period of profound crisis for China’s Qing Dynasty. Emperor Xianfeng ascended the throne in 1850, inheriting an empire beset by internal rebellions and foreign encroachment. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864), led by the self-proclaimed “Younger Brother of Jesus” Hong Xiuquan, had already begun its devastating sweep across southern China, while Western powers, fresh from their victories in the First Opium War (1839–1842), were demanding further concessions.

Yet, as his empire teetered on the brink, Xianfeng increasingly retreated into a world of pleasure, centered around the lavish Summer Palace complex of Yuanmingyuan. This imperial retreat, filled with European-style palaces and vast gardens, became the stage for the emperor’s neglect—a neglect that would have dire consequences for the Qing Dynasty and his young heir, the future Tongzhi Emperor.

The Yuanmingyuan Escapades: Imperial Neglect in Full View

Historical records paint a vivid picture of Xianfeng’s escapades at Yuanmingyuan. The emperor would glide across the palace lakes on royal barges while palace maids called out “Anle Du” (Peaceful Crossing) in melodic succession—a scene of artificial tranquility while rebellion raged beyond the palace walls.

Most shockingly, Xianfeng involved his young son and heir, Zaichun (later the Tongzhi Emperor), in this pleasure-seeking lifestyle. The boy, still a minor, was dazzled by the freedom and excitement of Yuanmingyuan—so different from the strict protocols of the Forbidden City. He marveled at the beautiful attendants and the absence of tutors or disciplinarians. This early exposure to unchecked indulgence would profoundly shape the future emperor’s character and reign.

The “Four Springs” and the Culture of Decadence

Yuanmingyuan became notorious for its “Four Springs”—four favored concubines who competed fiercely for Xianfeng’s attention. Historical poems from the era, such as those in the Qing Palace Lyrics, describe scenes where concubines waited anxiously to see “who would receive the imperial favor” each night.

The emperor revived the ancient “Sheep Cart” tradition from the Jin Dynasty, where his choice of companion for the night was left to chance—or more accurately, to whichever concubine employed the most clever tactics to attract the imperial cart. This system created an atmosphere of intense rivalry and debauchery within the palace.

The Aphrodisiac Scandal: When Play Turned Dangerous

The situation reached a crisis point when a senior official, Ding Baozhen, accidentally consumed what appeared to be fresh grapes in a waiting room—only to discover they were imperial potency drugs. The Shiye Wen records the humiliating aftermath, where the afflicted official had to be smuggled out of the palace in agony.

This incident alarmed Empress Dowager Cixi (then known as the Noble Consort Yi), who feared for her son Zaichun’s safety in this environment. Historical accounts note that Xianfeng, despite his frail health, consumed deer blood and various aphrodisiacs provided by his inner circle—particularly his powerful minister, Su Shun.

Su Shun: The Puppet Master Behind the Throne

Su Shun, as head of the Imperial Household Department and a trusted advisor, played a dual role in this drama. On one hand, he was a capable administrator who helped expose corruption in the imperial examinations and championed Han Chinese officials like Zeng Guofan against the Taiping rebels. The Draft History of Qing credits him with making “military recommendations superior to other court ministers.”

Yet simultaneously, Su Shun enabled Xianfeng’s worst excesses. The Yong’an Notes reveal how he “guided the emperor toward sensual pleasures,” providing not just the “Four Springs” concubines but also arranging for opium (euphemistically called “Longevity Enhancing Paste”) and other stimulants. His motives appear to have been a calculated strategy to control the emperor while consolidating his own power—earning him the whispered nickname “Second Emperor.”

The Rise of Empress Dowager Cixi

The Noble Consort Yi’s discovery of these intrigues marked a turning point. Recognizing the threat Su Shun posed to her son’s future, she began gathering intelligence through her eunuch network. Particularly damning were reports that Su Shun had dared to sit on the imperial throne and used the emperor’s personal utensils—acts bordering on treason.

This power struggle between Su Shun and the future Empress Dowager Cixi would culminate after Xianfeng’s death in 1861, when Cixi outmaneuvered Su Shun in the Xinyou Coup, securing her position as regent for the young Tongzhi Emperor.

Legacy of Neglect: From Yuanmingyuan to National Humiliation

Xianfeng’s reign ended in disaster. In 1860, Anglo-French forces burned Yuanmingyuan to the ground during the Second Opium War—an act of cultural destruction that remains a national trauma in China. The emperor fled to Rehe, where he died the following year, leaving behind a weakened dynasty and an heir whose upbringing amid palace intrigues left him ill-prepared to rule.

The lessons from this period are manifold. Xianfeng’s retreat into hedonism while crises mounted mirrors similar patterns in other declining empires. The cultivation of Zaichun in this environment produced a ruler whose brief reign continued many of his father’s weaknesses. Meanwhile, the rise of both Su Shun and Cixi demonstrated how power abhors a vacuum—when emperors neglect governance, others will fill the void.

Today, the ruins of Yuanmingyuan stand as a stark memorial to this era—a warning about the costs of leadership that prioritizes personal pleasure over national responsibility. The dramatic events of Xianfeng’s reign continue to inform Chinese historical consciousness, serving as a cautionary tale about decadence, foreign imperialism, and the fragile nature of power.