The Fragmented Yuan and Ming’s Strategic Dilemma

By late 1370, the newly established Ming Dynasty faced a critical juncture. Emperor Hongwu (Zhu Yuanzhang) had driven the Yuan rulers north beyond the Great Wall, but remnants of Mongol power remained potent. Two key threats emerged:

– Wang Baobao (Köke Temür), the Yuan’s most capable general, besieged Lanzhou with 100,000 troops, threatening Ming’s northwestern frontier.
– Yuan Emperor Toghon Temür lurked in the Mongolian steppes, rallying loyalists from his exile in Yingchang (modern Inner Mongolia).

At a tense war council in Nanjing, Ming generals overwhelmingly advocated striking the Yuan emperor first, believing his fall would collapse Mongol resistance. Yet Zhu Yuanzhang, demonstrating his strategic acumen, overruled them:

“Wang Baobao presses our western front. Ignoring him to chase the Yuan emperor ignores geography and urgency.”

His solution? A daring two-pronged offensive:
– Xu Da would lead 150,000 troops west to crush Wang Baobao at Dingxi.
– Li Wenzhong would march 100,000 north through the Gobi to eliminate the Yuan court.

The Western Front: Xu Da’s Masterclass at Shen’er Gorge

Xu Da’s campaign against Wang Baobao became a textbook example of tactical brilliance. Key phases unfolded:

### The Race to Dingxi
– Wang abandoned the Lanzhou siege on March 13, 1370, seizing Dingxi’s western regions. His cavalry looted the countryside, ensuring supplies while choosing defensive terrain at Che Dao Ridge—a natural fortress.
– Xu’s army, marching 1,200 li (≈400 miles) in winter, arrived exhausted on March 29. Instead of attacking, Xu had Deng Yu build fortified positions (Zhongshan Forts) near Shen’er Gorge, flipping the advantage.

### The Art of Forced Patience
Wang’s dilemma:
– Mongol weaknesses: No supply lines, reliant on foraging. Prolonged stalemate favored Ming.
– Terrain gambit failed: Xu refused to attack Wang’s ridge stronghold, instead luring Mongols into crossing the deep Shen’er ravine under fire.

After eight days of skirmishes, Wang’s starving army gambled on a full assault on April 7. Xu’s prepared defenses butchered the Mongols:
– Decisive blow: Ming cavalry flanked Wang’s forces, capturing 84,000 soldiers and 1,500 officers. Wang fled with just his wife and a few guards.

The Northern Expedition: Li Wenzhong’s Gobi Gamble

While Xu Da fought in Gansu, Li Wenzhong’s 100,000-man army faced a grimmer challenge:

### The “Five-Pronged” Diversion
To confuse Yuan scouts, Li coordinated subsidiary attacks:
1. Hua Yunlong took Yunzhou (Hebei).
2. Wang Xingzu seized Wuzhou and Shuozhou (Shanxi).
3. Jin Chaoxing captured Dongsheng (Inner Mongolia).
4. Sun Hu raided Luoma River (east of Kaiping)—annihilated by Yuan forces.
5. Sun Xingzu died at Sanbula Chuan, drawing Yuan troops west.

### The Death of an Emperor
Li’s main force stormed north:
– April 28: Captured Xinghe after Yuan commander Zhu Zhen defected.
– May 10: Retook Kaiping (Shangdu), the Yuan’s former summer capital.
– May 28: Reached Yingchang—only to find Toghon Temür had died six days earlier. Li crushed the Yuan court’s remnants, capturing the heir Ayushiridara and 50,000 prisoners.

Cultural Shockwaves: The Ming’s New World Order

These victories reshaped East Asia’s political landscape:

### The “Son of Heaven” Doctrine
Zhu Yuanzhang’s letters to the Yuan emperor reveal Ming ideology:
– Sinocentric hierarchy: Positioning China as the civilized center surrounded by tributary states.
– Performance-based legitimacy: “Heaven’s Mandate follows the people’s hearts”—a direct challenge to Mongol hereditary rule.

### The Nomadic Dilemma
Ming’s “buffer zone” strategy conflicted with steppe economies:
– For Mongols, raiding was survival, not rebellion. As Zhu admitted: “Even if they submit today, hunger will drive them to raid tomorrow.”
– This tension birthed the Ming’s Great Wall policy—static defense against mobile foes.

Legacy: The Unfinished War

### Tactical Triumphs, Strategic Stalemate
– Xu Da and Li Wenzhong’s 1370 campaigns marked the Ming’s peak against the Yuan. Yet the Mongols adapted, evolving into the Northern Yuan Dynasty (1368–1635).
– Zhu’s decision to abandon Kaiping/Yingchang after victory reflected logistical limits—a pattern repeating for centuries.

### Echoes in Modern China
The campaigns’ legacy endures:
– Nationalism: Framed as “Han liberation” from Mongol oppression.
– Security paradigms: China’s modern “peripheral diplomacy” mirrors Zhu’s buffer-state theory.

As dusk fell on Shen’er Gorge in April 1370, Xu Da’s troops buried 30,000 Mongols in mass graves. The Ming had won the battle, but the war for the steppes had just begun.