The final year of the Qin Dynasty, specifically the third year of Qin Er Shi’s reign , witnessed two pivotal battles that irreversibly altered the course of Chinese history. These military confrontations — the Battle of Julu and the subsequent campaign led by Liu Bang and Xiang Yu toward the Qin capital — marked the demise of the Qin Empire and the dawn of a new era. This article explores the strategic, political, and military background of these battles, their progression, outcomes, and the lasting impact they had on the trajectory of Chinese civilization.

The Twilight of the Qin Dynasty: Political and Military Context

The Qin Dynasty, founded by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BCE after the unification of China, was a regime known for its centralized bureaucracy, legalist policies, and ambitious infrastructure projects such as the Great Wall. However, the passing of Qin Shi Huang and the accession of his son, Qin Er Shi , marked the beginning of the dynasty’s decline. Real power fell into the hands of the eunuch Zhao Gao, whose tyrannical rule plunged the court into chaos.

Under Zhao Gao’s manipulation, the Qin government became increasingly disconnected from the realities on the ground. Officials feared reporting the true state of affairs, including the widespread uprisings and the military defeats Qin forces suffered against rebel factions. This atmosphere of fear and misinformation paralyzed effective governance and military strategy.

Despite some temporary military successes—such as the victory of Qin general Zhang Han over the rebel forces led by Xiang Liang at the Battle of Dingtao—the Qin military was overstretched and vulnerable. The rebellious forces, particularly those from Chu and Zhao states, continued to resist fiercely. Zhao Gao’s growing paranoia led him to assassinate Qin Er Shi, further destabilizing the regime and accelerating its collapse.

The Battle of Julu: A Turning Point in the Chu-Qin War

### Prelude: The Strategic Situation Before Julu

Following the defeat of Xiang Liang’s forces at Dingtao, the Chu army retreated eastward to Pengcheng to regroup. Meanwhile, Zhao Gao’s forces, commanded by General Zhang Han, pursued their campaign to suppress the rebellions and quell the remaining resistance.

Zhang Han’s forces advanced into the territory of the Zhao state, defeating Zhao generals Li Liang and Chen Yu, and capturing the Zhao capital. However, Zhao King Xie escaped northward to the city of Julu , where he gathered his remaining forces. Zhang Han’s army laid siege to Julu, positioning the main force south of the city and a detachment to encircle it from the north.

In dire need of assistance, the Zhao forces sent urgent pleas to neighboring states Chu, Yan, and Qi for military support. Chu’s King Huai responded by dispatching troops; however, internal political disputes complicated the command structure of the Chu army. While some high-ranking officials distrusted Xiang Yu, due to his perceived lack of discipline and violent reputation, others recognized his military prowess and advocated for his leadership.

### The Command Struggle and Its Consequences

King Huai ultimately appointed Song Yi as the supreme commander of the relief army, with Xiang Yu as his subordinate. Song Yi halted the army near Anyang for 45 or 46 days, hesitating to advance and relieve the siege. This delay frustrated Xiang Yu and other officers, as the Qin forces intensified their assault on Julu.

Xiang Yu proposed an immediate and decisive crossing of the river to attack the Qin forces, articulating a strategy where Chu would strike from the outside while Zhao resisted within the city, thereby crushing the Qin army. However, Song Yi, fearing Qin strength and overconfident in a strategy of attrition, declined to act promptly, believing the prolonged engagement would weaken Qin forces and create a better opportunity for victory later.

Xiang Yu’s frustration grew, particularly as Song Yi’s approach endangered the Zhao defenders. Eventually, Xiang Yu took matters into his own hands, reportedly executing Song Yi to assume command. Under Xiang Yu’s leadership, the Chu army launched a bold and aggressive attack on the Qin besiegers of Julu.

### The Decisive Victory at Julu

The Battle of Julu was fierce and bloody, lasting several days. Xiang Yu’s forces, employing superior tactics and morale, managed to break the Qin lines and decisively defeat Zhang Han’s army, which suffered catastrophic losses. This victory was strategically decisive—it shattered the main Qin military force, demoralized the regime, and shifted the momentum firmly in favor of the anti-Qin coalitions.

The triumph at Julu is often regarded as one of the most significant battles of ancient China, symbolizing the collapse of Qin’s military dominance and heralding the rise of Chu under Xiang Yu’s leadership.

The Campaign to Xianyang: Liu Bang and Xiang Yu March on the Qin Capital

### The Rise of Liu Bang and Xiang Yu’s Rivalry

While Xiang Yu’s victory at Julu was pivotal, the final conquest of the Qin capital, Xianyang, was accomplished through combined efforts of multiple rebel factions, most notably those led by Liu Bang and Xiang Yu.

Liu Bang, a former minor official and regional commander, had steadily gained followers and expanded his power base. Unlike Xiang Yu, who hailed from a noble military lineage, Liu Bang’s pragmatic leadership and ability to rally diverse groups would prove crucial in the ultimate overthrow of Qin.

By the second year of Qin Er Shi’s reign , Liu Bang and Xiang Yu had begun their westward march toward Xianyang, engaging in a prolonged campaign lasting fourteen months. The prolonged siege and battles exhausted Qin’s remaining defenders and destabilized the regime further.

### The Fall of Xianyang and the End of the Qin Dynasty

In 207 BCE, Qin Prince Ziying, the last claimant of the Qin royal house, surrendered to Liu Bang’s forces. The fall of Xianyang signified the formal end of the Qin Dynasty, bringing to a close the short yet transformative reign of China’s first imperial dynasty.

The collapse of Qin paved the way for the Chu-Han Contention, a power struggle between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu that would determine the next dynasty. Liu Bang’s eventual victory led to the establishment of the Han Dynasty, which would oversee a period of stability, cultural flourishing, and imperial consolidation lasting over four centuries.

Cultural and Historical Significance

### The Legacy of the Qin Collapse

The decisive battles of Julu and the capture of Xianyang are more than just military episodes; they represent the failure of a regime that, despite its groundbreaking achievements, failed to secure lasting legitimacy and popular support.

Qin’s harsh legalism, forced labor projects, and authoritarian rule sowed seeds of rebellion. The internal chaos precipitated by Zhao Gao’s machinations and the ineffective leadership of Qin Er Shi demonstrated the dangers of centralized power unchecked by accountability.

### The Emergence of New Leadership Models

The conflict highlighted contrasting leadership styles: Xiang Yu’s aristocratic, valor-driven command and Liu Bang’s more inclusive, pragmatic approach. Their rivalry and cooperation during the fall of Qin laid foundations for future governance philosophies emphasizing flexibility, merit, and political acumen.

### Impact on Chinese Historical Narratives

The Battle of Julu and the fall of Qin have been immortalized in historical texts and popular culture as emblematic of the transition from tyranny to a more balanced and enduring imperial system. These events underscore themes of rebellion, legitimacy, and the cyclical nature of dynastic change, which are central to Chinese historical thought.

Conclusion

The final chapter of the Qin Dynasty, marked by the Battle of Julu and the march on Xianyang, was a decisive moment in Chinese history. These events not only ended the rule of the first imperial dynasty but also set the stage for the rise of the Han Dynasty, which would shape the cultural and political landscape of China for centuries.

Understanding the complexities of this period—the political intrigue, military strategies, leadership struggles, and popular uprisings—provides invaluable insights into the dynamics of power, governance, and historical transformation in ancient China. The lessons gleaned from these battles continue to resonate, reminding us of the fragile balance between authority and legitimacy that underpins all enduring civilizations.