A Fateful Alliance: The Southern Xiongnu’s Submission to the Eastern Han

In 49 CE, the Southern Xiongnu—once formidable nomadic rivals of the Han Empire—made a historic decision: they submitted to Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty, becoming a frontier defense force. This arrangement initially appeared mutually beneficial. The Han gained a buffer against northern threats, while the Southern Xiongnu received protection and resources. However, beneath the surface, Emperor Guangwu’s strategy concealed a long-term plan to weaken and control them.

Over the next century, the Southern Xiongnu gradually lost their autonomy. The Han systematically eroded their military independence, replaced traditional leadership structures with puppet rulers, and exploited internal divisions. By the mid-2nd century, the Southern Xiongnu had transformed from a proud steppe confederacy into a fractured vassal state, simmering with resentment.

The 140 CE Revolt: A Breaking Point

In April 140 CE, tensions exploded. Left Division chieftains Wusi and Cheniu led 3,000 cavalry in a revolt, attacking Xihe Commandery. By May, they had allied with Right Virtuous King Yudi, amassing 7,000–8,000 horsemen to besiege Meiji, killing Han officials in Shuofang and Dai Commanderies.

The Han response was swift. General Ma Xu, Protector of the Xiongnu Liang Bing, and Wuhuan Colonel Wang Yuan mobilized 20,000 troops from border garrisons, supplemented by Wuhuan, Xianbei, and Qiang mercenaries. The rebellion was crushed, but the Han adopted a conciliatory policy: rebels who surrendered would be pardoned. Right Virtuous King Yudi, swayed by this offer, surrendered with 13,000 followers.

Emperor Shun, furious at the revolt, blamed Southern Chanyu Xiuli for failing to control his people. Despite Xiuli’s loyalty, the new Protector Chen Gui subjected him to relentless psychological pressure, driving Xiuli and his brother, the Left Virtuous King, to suicide. This marked a shocking low: a Xiongnu chieftain, once a sovereign ruler, had been hounded to death by Han overseers.

The Slow Death of Xiongnu Sovereignty

With Xiuli’s death, the Southern Xiongnu faced a succession crisis. The traditional heir, the Left Virtuous King, was also dead. Rebel leader Wusi exploited the chaos, proclaiming Cheniu as a rival chanyu in open defiance of Han authority. For two years, the Southern Xiongnu operated without Han-approved leadership until 143 CE, when Protector Ma Shi assassinated Wusi. Emperor Shun installed a puppet ruler, Doulouchu—a “Righteous King” loyal to the Han.

Doulouchu’s reign was short. His successor, Juche’er (r. 147 CE), was another Han puppet, so ineffective that general Zhang Huan petitioned for his removal. Emperor Huan refused, valuing Juche’er’s obedience over competence. This dismissive attitude—appointing rulers without consulting Xiongnu nobles—fueled resentment.

In 158 CE, the Southern Xiongnu revolted en masse, revealing the chanyu’s utter lack of authority. Zhang Huan crushed the rebellion but warned that the Han’s policy was unsustainable. The Xiongnu, once tasked with subduing other nomads (“using barbarians to control barbarians”), had become a liability. Yet Emperor Huan, content with Juche’er’s subservience, ignored the advice.

The Final Humiliation and the Rise of the Tuge

By 179 CE, the chanyu throne passed to Juche’er’s grandson Huzheng, who dared to defy Han orders. Protector Zhang Xiu responded by executing Huzheng and installing a new puppet, Qiangqu. The message was clear: the Han would kill and appoint chanyus at will.

In 188 CE, the Southern Xiongnu’s patience snapped. Ordered to suppress rebellions in Youzhou, they turned on Qiangqu, murdering him and declaring independence. Leading this revolt was the Tuge (formerly Xiutu)—a resilient clan descended from the Xiutu King defeated by Huo Qubing in 121 BCE. The Tuge had survived centuries of Han domination, and now, with the Eastern Han collapsing, they struck.

Qiangqu’s son Yufuluo fled, seeking Han aid, but the dynasty was crumbling. By the time he allied with warlords like Yuan Shao and Cao Cao, the Southern Xiongnu had dissolved into decentralized tribes.

Cao Cao’s Masterstroke: The Final Dismantling

In 216 CE, Cao Cao dealt the deathblow. Chanyu Huchuquan, visiting Cao’s court, was detained indefinitely. The Southern Xiongnu were split into five divisions, each overseen by a Han-appointed Sima. The Tuge were merged into this structure, and Xiongnu nobles were forced to adopt Han surnames—many becoming the “Liu” clan, a symbolic erasure of identity.

By the 270s, the Tuge dominated the remnants of the Southern Xiongnu, but their victory was hollow. The once-mighty Xiongnu were now scattered, their leaders powerless under Jin Dynasty oversight. Yet, as the Jin weakened, these suppressed forces would reemerge with devastating consequences during the Upheaval of the Five Barbarians.

Legacy: From Vassals to Conquerors

The Southern Xiongnu’s story is one of imperial manipulation and unintended consequences. The Han’s strategy of “using barbarians to control barbarians” backfired when those same barbarians, stripped of dignity and autonomy, turned against their masters. The Tuge’s rise foreshadowed a broader trend: as Chinese dynasties weakened, marginalized groups like the Xiongnu, Xianbei, and Di would seize their moment.

By the 4th century, the stage was set for chaos. The Xiongnu, once broken, would return under leaders like Liu Yuan to topple the Western Jin—proof that no empire, no matter how brilliant its strategies, could suppress the tides of history forever.