The Political Landscape of Early Meiji Japan

The Meiji Restoration of 1868 marked a revolutionary turning point in Japanese history, dismantling the feudal Tokugawa shogunate and restoring imperial rule under Emperor Meiji. This period witnessed Japan’s rapid transformation from an isolated feudal society into a modern nation-state. By the late 1880s, the country stood at a critical juncture—having promulgated the Meiji Constitution in 1889, Japan now faced the complex task of implementing constitutional government while maintaining stability and continuity.

The political arena was dominated by powerful figures from the former samurai class who had engineered the Restoration. Among these oligarchs, known as the genrō, two figures emerged as particularly influential: Hirobumi Ito and Aritomo Yamagata. Their contrasting approaches to governance would shape Japan’s constitutional development during these formative years.

The Yamagata Cabinet and Early Constitutional Challenges

In December 1889, Aritomo Yamagata formed his first cabinet as Prime Minister, assuming leadership at a moment of significant constitutional transition. The establishment of the Imperial Diet—Japan’s first parliamentary body—and the planning for initial general elections represented monumental steps in Japan’s political evolution. Yamagata, a former samurai from Chōshū domain and architect of the modern Japanese military, approached governance with caution and a preference for centralized control.

Within days of forming his government, Yamagata initiated substantial personnel changes, replacing approximately twenty officials including the Superintendent General of Police and several prefectural governors. These appointments placed Yamagata’s loyal supporters in key positions, a strategic move to ensure favorable conditions for the upcoming elections. Among these appointments, Tanaka Mitsuaki assumed the critical role of Police Superintendent while Shirane Senichi became governor of Aichi Prefecture.

Ito’s Dissent and Constitutional Philosophy

Hirobumi Ito, the principal architect of the Meiji Constitution, watched these developments with growing concern. In a private letter to his friend and political ally Kaoru Inoue dated January 12, 1890, Ito expressed dissatisfaction with Yamagata’s approach. He criticized the personnel changes as superficially decisive but fundamentally flawed in their execution.

Ito’s vision for Japan’s constitutional development emphasized gradual, orderly progress rather than radical transformation. In February 1890, while discussing matters related to parliamentary officials with his subordinate Kowashi Inoue, the Director of the Legislative Bureau, Ito articulated his philosophy of “orderly forward advancement.” He argued against rapid Westernization, insisting that Japan must find its own pace of development that respected both tradition and progress.

This philosophical difference between Ito and Yamagata represented a fundamental tension in Meiji governance: between those who favored cautious, controlled modernization and those who advocated for more rapid institutional transformation.

Imperial Concerns and Political Maneuvering

Emperor Meiji himself shared concerns about Japan’s dual challenges of treaty revision and parliamentary implementation. The unequal treaties imposed by Western powers during the late Tokugawa period remained a source of national humiliation, while the establishment of the Imperial Diet represented uncharted territory for Japanese governance.

The Emperor demonstrated greater confidence in Ito’s leadership than in Yamagata’s. Recognizing this dynamic, Yamagata formally requested that the Emperor consult Ito regarding foreign minister Shuzo Aoki’s memorandum on government policy. On January 29, 1890, the Emperor summoned Ito for consultation, and two days later commanded that Foreign Minister Aoki discuss treaty revision matters with Ito before bringing them to the cabinet.

Yamagata, sensing Ito’s dissatisfaction with his administration, attempted to resign in spring 1890, citing the overwhelming demands of the prime ministership and recommending Ito as his successor. Ito, suspecting insincerity in Yamagata’s gesture, declined the offer. Yamagata then petitioned the Emperor directly to appoint Ito as Prime Minister.

On May 14, 1890, the Emperor issued an imperial rescript commanding Ito to form a government. The document praised Ito’s contributions alongside those of two deceased Restoration heroes—Toshimichi Okubo and Takayoshi Kido—noting that Ito had served at the center of power for over a decade since their passing. Despite this imperial command, Ito took no action to form a government, and Yamagata’s cabinet continued its work with both imperial and genrō acceptance.

The First General Election and Political Regulation

On July 1, 1890, Japan held its first general election under the slogan of “non-partisanship.” The election proceeded without major disturbances, though the political landscape remained fluid. Of the 300 seats in the House of Representatives, approximately 100 went to factions associated with the former Liberal Party, while the Constitutional Reform Party secured about 50 seats. A significant number of critical, anti-government candidates also won election, creating uncertainty about whether government-proposed budgets and legislation would pass parliamentary scrutiny.

On July 25, 1890, the Yamagata cabinet promulgated the Law on Assembly and Political Associations, modifying previous regulations on public gatherings to account for the new parliamentary system. While simplifying application procedures for political meetings and associations, the law introduced new restrictions including prohibitions on indoor assemblies and demonstrations within approximately 12 kilometers of the Diet building during parliamentary sessions. It also maintained previous bans on political parties establishing branch offices or forming alliances with other parties.

Ito notably refrained from criticizing this legislation, possibly to avoid open confrontation with Yamagata or perhaps because he himself remained uncertain about how the first parliamentary session would unfold. Meanwhile, newspapers associated with opposition parties published deliberately provocative reports about the relationship between Ito and Yamagata, attempting to exploit tensions between the two leaders.

Treaty Revision and Diplomatic Challenges

Treaty revision represented one of Ito’s highest priorities and greatest frustrations. Having devoted himself to constitutional and imperial household matters, Ito had delegated treaty revision efforts first to Kaoru Inoue and then to Shigenobu Okuma, both of whom encountered significant difficulties.

Following Okuma’s failed treaty revision attempt, Prime Minister Sanetomi Sanjo assigned Inoue, now Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, to develop new guidelines for treaty negotiation. Working with Ito , they developed a comprehensive foreign policy approach approved by the cabinet on December 10, 1889, and sanctioned by the Emperor the following day.

This policy, titled “Future Diplomatic Strategy,” established several key principles: refusal to appoint foreign judges even in the Supreme Court; rejection of demands for rapid codification and promulgation of legal codes; prohibition of foreign ownership of real estate until extraterritoriality was abolished; and establishment of special restrictions on foreign residents under certain economic or legal circumstances.

These positions reflected both public sentiment against previous treaty revision attempts and considerations about maintaining constitutional consistency. The approach acknowledged the practical difficulties of rapidly completing civil and commercial legal codes while protecting Japanese sovereignty and economic interests.

Cultural and Social Impacts of Constitutional Implementation

The establishment of constitutional government reverberated throughout Japanese society, creating new political consciousness and changing how citizens related to their government. The first general election, despite its limitations, introduced the concept of popular representation to a nation accustomed to top-down governance.

The emergence of political parties, however constrained by legislation, created new avenues for political participation and expression. Newspapers played an increasingly important role in shaping public opinion, though they faced significant restrictions under laws like the Assembly and Political Associations Act.

The tension between order and freedom manifested throughout society as Japan negotiated its transformation. The government’s cautious approach reflected concerns about maintaining stability during a period of unprecedented change, while increasingly educated and politically aware citizens began demanding greater participation in governance.

Educational reforms implemented during earlier Meiji years now bore fruit in creating citizens who could engage with constitutional government. Meanwhile, the continued presence of unequal treaties served as a constant reminder of Japan’s subordinate international position, fueling nationalist sentiment and desire for full sovereignty.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The political struggles between Ito and Yamagata during Japan’s early constitutional period established patterns that would influence Japanese politics for decades. Their differing approaches—Ito’s emphasis on gradual constitutional development versus Yamagata’s preference for controlled implementation—represented enduring tensions in Japanese governance between reform and stability.

The careful management of Japan’s political opening established precedents for state-society relations that emphasized order above all else. The Laws on Assembly and Political Associations set patterns for regulating political expression that would persist through much of Japan’s modern history.

The treaty revision efforts, though initially unsuccessful, established principles of diplomatic engagement that eventually led to successful renegotiation of the unequal treaties. Japan’s insistence on sovereignty equality and refusal to accept compromised judicial independence demonstrated the nation’s growing confidence on the international stage.

Perhaps most significantly, this period demonstrated Japan’s distinctive approach to modernization—adapting Western institutions while maintaining Japanese essence. The concept of “orderly forward advancement” articulated by Ito became a guiding philosophy for Japan’s development, favoring gradual transformation over revolutionary change.

The political dynamics between the genrō, particularly between Ito and Yamagata, established patterns of elite governance that would characterize Japanese politics well into the twentieth century. Their ability to maintain unity despite differences, and their shared commitment to national strengthening, enabled Japan to navigate the treacherous waters of modernization without fragmenting politically.

Today, as nations worldwide continue to grapple with questions of constitutional development, political participation, and international integration, Japan’s Meiji experience offers valuable insights into the challenges of managed political transformation and the delicate balance between order and freedom in developing constitutional government.