The Fracturing Alliances After Aix-la-Chapelle

The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 left Europe’s major powers simmering with mutual resentment. Maria Theresa of Austria deeply resented Britain’s imposed settlement, which deliberately fostered Prussia’s rise as a counterweight to Habsburg ambitions in the Holy Roman Empire. British diplomats, in turn, complained of Austria’s insatiable appetite for subsidies coupled with reluctance to honor commitments. Meanwhile, Frederick the Great’s repeated betrayals alienated his French allies, while his scandalous jokes about Louis XV’s mistresses created personal enmity. This toxic atmosphere made a complete reorganization of alliances inevitable – a process accelerated by the strategic vision of Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz.

Kaunitz’s Radical Realignment Strategy

Having served as Austria’s ambassador to Italy, the Netherlands, and the Aix-la-Chapelle peace congress, Kaunitz recognized fundamental geopolitical realities. Austria’s peripheral territories in Italy and the Netherlands were militarily indefensible against French aggression while providing minimal strategic value. The true prize remained Silesia, lost to Prussia in 1740. Recovering it would require continental allies, as traditional maritime partners proved unreliable. Kaunitz’s 1749 memorandum proposed a breathtaking reversal: alliance with France, Austria’s historic enemy for three centuries.

Initial skepticism gave way to opportunity when Anglo-French colonial tensions escalated. France’s 1752 appointment of Marquis Duquesne as Canada’s governor, tasked with securing the Ohio Valley, made North American conflict imminent. Meanwhile, Britain’s 1755 defensive treaty with Russia alarmed Prussia’s Frederick, prompting his 1756 Convention of Westminster with Britain that guaranteed German neutrality – the final provocation for France to embrace Austria.

The Diplomatic Revolution Takes Shape

Critical decisions crystallized at Austrian state conferences on August 19 and 21, 1755. Kaunitz, now chancellor, secured approval for alliances with France, Russia, Sweden and Saxony to reduce Prussia to its 1618 borders. The resulting First Treaty of Versailles (May 1, 1756) created a defensive Franco-Austrian pact, while Russia prepared to attack Prussia from the east. Frederick, receiving intelligence of these encirclement plans through Saxon spies, chose preemptive war – invading Saxony on August 29, 1756.

The Seven Years’ War Unfolds

Frederick’s lightning campaign against Saxony succeeded initially, but the war would last seven grueling years. By 1757, Prussia faced a coalition including France, Austria, Russia, Sweden and most German states. Early disasters included:
– Defeat at Kolin (June 1757) forcing Prussian withdrawal from Bohemia
– Hanoverian allies neutralized by France at Kloster Zeven (September 1757)
– Russian invasion of East Prussia
– Austrian occupation of Berlin (October 1757)

Frederick’s salvation came through two legendary victories:
1. Rossbach (November 5, 1757): Crushed Franco-Imperial forces despite 2:1 numerical disadvantage, with minimal Prussian losses
2. Leuthen (December 5, 1757): Outmaneuvered a larger Austrian army to retake Silesia

The Global Conflict Expands

While Prussia fought for survival in Europe, Britain and France clashed worldwide:
– North America: Wolfe’s 1759 capture of Quebec decided Canada’s fate
– India: Robert Clive secured Bengal at Plassey (1757); French hopes ended with Pondicherry’s fall (1761)
– Caribbean: Britain captured Guadeloupe (1759) and Martinique (1762)
– Naval War: Hawke’s 1759 victory at Quiberon Bay ended French invasion threats

The War’s Turning Points

Key developments shifted momentum:
– 1760: Frederick’s narrow victory at Torgau maintained stalemate
– 1761: Prussia neared collapse as Russian and Austrian forces wintered on its territory
– January 5, 1762: “The Miracle of the House of Brandenburg” – Tsar Peter III’s accession ended Russian involvement
– 1763: Treaties of Hubertusburg (Prussia/Austria) and Paris (Britain/France) concluded the war

Legacy and Historical Impact

The war’s consequences reshaped the global order:
1. Prussia emerged as a great power, retaining Silesia despite enormous losses
2. Britain became the dominant colonial power, though American tensions soon emerged
3. France suffered financial ruin and imperial decline, sowing seeds for revolution
4. Diplomatic Revolution demonstrated the fluidity of alliances based on interests rather than tradition

As Voltaire ironically noted in Candide, the conflict over “a few acres of snow” in Canada had transformed the world’s balance of power in ways contemporaries scarcely comprehended. The Seven Years’ War established patterns of global conflict and alliance politics that would endure through the Napoleonic era and beyond.