The Roots of Discontent in Joseon Korea

The late 19th century found Korea’s Joseon Dynasty caught between tradition and modernization pressures. The Donghak Peasant Rebellion (1894-1895) emerged from this volatile context, where economic hardship, corruption, and foreign interference created a tinderbox. Donghak (Eastern Learning), founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u as a syncretic religious movement blending Confucianism, Buddhism, and indigenous beliefs, became the ideological backbone of peasant resistance against both the aristocratic Yangban class and foreign powers.

Japan’s victory in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) allowed Tokyo to dominate Korean politics, installing pro-Japanese reformers like Kim Hong-jip and Park Yeong-hyo. This puppet government’s collaboration with Japan inflamed nationalist sentiments, particularly among peasants who saw “Westernization” as cultural betrayal.

Clash of Steel and Straw Sandals: The Military Campaign

The rebellion reached its climax during Japan’s simultaneous wars in Manchuria and Korea. While modernized Japanese troops besieged Lüshun (Port Arthur), their Korean allies faced the Donghak forces near Gongju. The peasant army, led by the charismatic Jeon Bong-jun, demonstrated numerical strength—”covering the mountains between Nonsan and Gongju”—but lacked firearms and tactical coordination.

Key engagements revealed this asymmetry:
– At Mokcheon and Seseongsan, General Kim Bok-yong’s Donghak contingent collapsed under surprise attacks by Japanese-Korean forces.
– The siege of Gongju failed spectacularly against Japanese artillery and repeating rifles, forcing retreat to Nonsan.
– A critical blunder occurred when Donghak fighters mistakenly fired upon defecting government soldiers waving white flags, squandering potential reinforcements.

By December 1894, the movement disintegrated. Leaders including Jeon Bong-jun were captured at Bihyang-ri after a final meeting, marking the rebellion’s military defeat.

The Ideological Fault Lines

Donghak manifestos reveal fascinating contradictions:
1. Anti-modernization rhetoric condemned Japan’s “Twenty Reform Articles” as cultural imperialism.
2. Appeals to government troops emphasized shared Korean identity: “Though our paths differ, we unite in expelling Japanese and Chinese.”
3. Paradoxical conservatism rejected both the pro-Japanese “Gaehwa (Enlightenment) faction” and traditional elites like the exiled Daewongun.

The movement’s internal documents expose a fundamental tension—revolutionary in challenging the status quo, yet reactionary in its vision for Korea. This ideological ambiguity hindered alliances with potential collaborators, including the scheming Daewongun who sought to manipulate the rebellion for his own restoration.

Theater of Absurdity: The Show Trials

The post-rebellion trials under Justice Minister Seo Gwang-beom—a Japanese-educated reformist—became political theater. Prosecutors obsessively sought non-existent links between Donghak leaders and the Daewongun, hoping to justify further purges of anti-Japanese factions.

Jeon Bong-jun’s defiant courtroom performance became legendary:
– Rejecting medical treatment for his wounds: “Why heal what will soon be dead?”
– Dismissing judicial legitimacy: “I acknowledge no laws of my captors.”
– Framing his struggle as nationalist resistance: “All Koreans share the desire to repel Japan.”

Despite Japanese offers of clemency in exchange for cooperation, Jeon maintained his principles until his March 1895 execution.

Ripple Effects Across East Asia

The rebellion’s suppression had cascading consequences:
1. Japan solidified control, exiling the Daewongun again and banning the rival Min clan from politics.
2. Korea’s forced “modernization” accelerated under Japanese direction, sowing seeds for 1910 annexation.
3. China’s defeat exposed Qing weakness, encouraging further imperialist encroachments.

Interestingly, the concurrent Sino-Japanese War saw parallel Japanese strategies—Field Marshal Yamagata Aritomo’s proposed march on Beijing was vetoed not due to military feasibility (as Qing forces showed “no will to fight” per Yuan Shikai), but from fears of triggering Qing collapse and provoking Western intervention.

Echoes in Modern Memory

Today, the Donghak Rebellion is remembered as:
– A precursor to Korean anti-colonial movements
– A case study in peasant mobilization against imperialism
– A cautionary tale about ideological purity limiting strategic flexibility

The movement’s blend of nativism and social justice continues to inspire debates about Korea’s path through modernization—a conversation that began with straw-sandaled farmers facing Gatling guns on the hills of Gongju.

As East Asia’s geopolitical landscape shifts, the 1894 uprising serves as a poignant reminder of how grassroots resistance can shape national destinies, even in defeat. The Donghak cry—”Prevent Korea from becoming Japan!”—resonates anew in contemporary discussions about sovereignty and cultural identity across the region.