The Stage is Set: Prelude to Waterloo

On the morning of June 18, 1815, two massive armies faced each other across the rolling fields near Waterloo in what Napoleon Bonaparte would later describe as “a dramatic action with its own beginning, middle, and end.” The French Emperor, recently returned from exile on Elba, found himself confronting a coalition of British, Dutch, and Prussian forces determined to end his rule once and for all. The strategic importance of this confrontation cannot be overstated – it would determine the fate of Europe for generations to come.

Napoleon’s forces numbered approximately 72,000 men with 246 guns, while the Anglo-Allied army under the Duke of Wellington counted 68,000 troops with 156 artillery pieces. To the east, Marshal Blücher’s Prussian army of 50,000 was marching to join Wellington, though Napoleon believed his subordinate Marshal Grouchy was keeping them occupied. The battlefield itself presented challenges – heavy rains the previous night had turned the fields into muddy quagmires, slowing movement and affecting artillery effectiveness.

Contested Plans: Napoleon’s Uncertain Strategy

Historians continue to debate Napoleon’s exact battle plan at Waterloo, as conflicting accounts emerged from his inner circle. His chief aide-de-camp, Gaspard Gourgaud, recorded that Napoleon intended a direct assault on the Allied center along the Brussels road. However, Napoleon’s own later dictations on St. Helena suggested a right flank attack to isolate Wellington from the Prussians.

This discrepancy reveals much about Napoleonic historiography. Napoleon’s accounts of his own actions must be treated carefully – was he describing what he did, or what he wished he had done? The deployment of three corps’ reserve artillery along the front line, with particular emphasis on supporting the right flank, suggests the flanking maneuver may indeed have been the original plan.

The Artillery Onslaught: Napoleon’s “Beautiful Daughters”

True to form, Napoleon sought to leverage his artillery superiority. He affectionately called his 12-pounders his “beautiful daughters” and had perfected the use of massed batteries to soften enemy positions before infantry assaults. At Waterloo, he assembled an impressive grand battery of 54-80 guns (accounts vary) under General Duchand’s command.

The psychological impact of this bombardment cannot be overstated. As one Hanoverian officer recalled: “A wonderful sense of sublimity came over us all. We had fought bravely in many battles, but never before as part of such a large army.” The French guns fired an estimated 1,400 rounds per hour into the Allied positions, though the soft ground reduced their effectiveness as many shells buried themselves before exploding.

The Attack Begins: D’Erlon’s Corps Advances

Around 1:30 PM, Marshal Ney launched the first major infantry assault with General D’Erlon’s I Corps – some 20,000 men advancing in unusual battalion columns that were essentially hybrid formations between columns and lines. This controversial formation, possibly intended to maximize shock effect against Wellington’s thin lines, would prove vulnerable to cavalry counterattacks.

The French infantry advanced through terrible conditions. As Corporal Louis Canler of the 28th Line recalled: “We hadn’t gone 100 paces when our battalion commander, Major Malens, was mortally wounded.” The mud sucked at their boots, slowing progress and breaking formations. Allied artillery took a heavy toll, but the French pressed on, their cries of “Vive l’Empereur!” echoing across the field.

Crisis and Counterattack: The British Heavy Cavalry Charge

As D’Erlon’s men reached the Allied ridge, the situation grew desperate. The Prince of Orange sent forward Hanoverian troops to reinforce the key strongpoint of La Haye Sainte, but French cuirassiers under Colonel Crabbé scattered them. At this critical moment, the British heavy cavalry – the Household and Union Brigades – launched their famous charge.

The results were spectacular but costly. The heavy dragoons smashed into the French infantry, capturing two imperial eagles (the prized regimental standards) and pushing deep into enemy lines. However, their lack of discipline after the initial success led to heavy losses when French lancers and fresh cavalry counterattacked. As Sergeant Charles Ewart of the Scots Greys famously captured the eagle of the 45th Line, other units pursued too far and were cut off.

The Struggle for Hougoumont: A Battle Within the Battle

While the main assault developed in the center, a fierce subsidiary battle raged around the fortified farm of Hougoumont on Wellington’s right flank. Jerome Bonaparte’s division attacked repeatedly, tying down disproportionate Allied forces. The defense by British Guards and German troops became legendary, with the farm’s gates famously being shut against attacking French troops, trapping and dooming those who had broken in.

Wellington later remarked that “the battle turned on the closing of those gates at Hougoumont.” The struggle for this position lasted all day, drawing in ever more French troops while the Allies maintained just enough defenders to hold it. The burning haystacks and buildings created an apocalyptic scene as men fought hand-to-hand in the orchards and gardens.

The Prussian Arrival: Blücher’s Timely Intervention

As the afternoon wore on, Napoleon received alarming news – Prussian forces under Bülow were approaching from the east, not being held off by Grouchy as expected. The Emperor had to divert troops to his right flank to meet this new threat, weakening his central attacks. This development would prove decisive, as the arrival of Prussian reinforcements steadily tipped the balance against the French.

Ney’s Cavalry Charges: Valor and Futility

In one of the battle’s most controversial episodes, Marshal Ney launched massive unsupported cavalry charges against the Allied center. Wave after wave of French cuirassiers and lancers ascended the ridge, only to find Wellington’s infantry formed in unbreakable squares. Without proper infantry or artillery support, these brave but futile attacks wasted France’s magnificent cavalry to no purpose.

An eyewitness described the scene: “The cuirassiers, with their tall helmets and glittering breastplates, advanced like a steel tide. But the British squares stood firm, their volleys tearing gaps in the charging lines that closed up with almost mechanical precision.”

The Imperial Guard’s Last Stand

As evening fell, Napoleon committed his final reserve – the elite Imperial Guard. Their advance was meant to be the coup de grâce, but instead became a symbol of shattered invincibility. Met by devastating fire from British Guards and other units, the Guard recoiled, then broke. The cry “La Garde recule!” (The Guard retreats!) spread panic through French ranks.

An officer of the 3rd Guards recalled: “They came on in their bearskins, silent and terrible. We held our fire until we could see the buttons on their uniforms, then unleashed hell. They stood no chance.”

Aftermath and Legacy: The End of an Era

By 9 PM, the French army was in full retreat. Waterloo marked the definitive end of Napoleon’s rule and the Napoleonic Wars that had ravaged Europe for over a decade. The battle’s consequences were immense – it ushered in a period of relative peace in Europe and cemented Britain’s position as the dominant world power.

Waterloo’s legacy endures not just in history books but in language itself – the term “meeting one’s Waterloo” has entered the lexicon as shorthand for final, decisive defeat. The battle remains one of history’s most studied military engagements, its lessons on leadership, tactics, and the fog of war continuing to resonate two centuries later.

The human cost was staggering – approximately 25,000 French casualties, 15,000 Allied, and 7,000 Prussian. As Wellington famously remarked, “Nothing except a battle lost can be half so melancholy as a battle won.” The fields of Waterloo, fertilized with the blood of thousands, would forever stand as testament to both the glory and the futility of war.