The deaths of Guan Yu and Cao Cao in 220 CE marked not just the passing of two legendary figures, but a seismic shift in the power dynamics of the Three Kingdoms period. While these events theoretically signaled the formal beginning of the Three Kingdoms era, for most observers, they represented the end of its early and middle phases. The baton of history was now passed to the late Three Kingdoms period—a time when three fascinating but flawed rulers would navigate a precarious balance of power.

The Shifting Sands of Power

By 220 CE, the political landscape featured three key players:

– Cao Pi (34 years old): Inheriting the vast Cao Wei territories but lacking his father Cao Cao’s political acumen.
– Sun Quan (38 years old): The shrewd but increasingly erratic ruler of Eastern Wu, whose opportunism earned him a reputation as a “seasoned rogue.”
– Liu Bei (60 years old): The aging Shu Han emperor, now outmaneuvered by his younger rivals.

On paper, Cao Pi held the strongest hand, yet through a series of miscalculations and unforeseen events, the tripartite division of power persisted. How did this happen?

The Rise of Cao Pi and the Fall of Han

### The Challenges of Succession

Cao Pi’s ascension was far from smooth. His father’s towering legacy cast a long shadow, and many within the empire questioned whether the son could fill the father’s shoes. Two incidents highlighted this tension:

1. The Revolt of the Qingzhou and Xuzhou Troops: These veteran soldiers, loyal to Cao Cao but not necessarily to Cao Pi, openly demanded demobilization and even staged a drum protest in Luoyang—a symbolic act historically associated with rebellion.
2. The Dilemma of Discipline: While some officials urged harsh punishment, adviser Jia Kui argued for conciliation, recognizing that Cao Pi needed stability more than retribution.

### The Mechanics of Legitimacy: The Nine-Rank System

To consolidate power, Cao Pi turned to institutional reform. In February 220, Chen Qun proposed the Nine-Rank System (九品中正制), a bureaucratic innovation that would shape Chinese governance for centuries.

#### How It Worked:
1. Nine Grades of Talent: Officials were classified into nine ranks (from “Upper Upper” to “Lower Lower”), though only ranks 2–6 held real power.
2. The Role of the Zhongzheng (中正): Local officials assessed candidates based on:
– Lineage (家世): Family background and ancestral achievements.
– Conduct (行状): Personal virtue and ability, summarized in four-character phrases like “Talented and Virtuous.”

While the system claimed to value merit, lineage increasingly dictated advancement, leading to the adage: “Upper ranks hold no commoners; lower ranks hold no nobles.”

#### Political Implications:
– Short-Term Gain: The system secured support from powerful families, easing Cao Pi’s transition.
– Long-Term Disaster: It entrenched aristocratic privilege, weakening Cao Wei’s governance and contributing to its eventual collapse.

### Military Consolidation

Cao Pi meticulously reorganized the military to ensure loyalty:

– Central Command: Trusted kin like Xiahou Dun and Cao Hong held top positions.
– Imperial Guard: The formidable Xu Chu, Cao Cao’s longtime bodyguard, controlled elite units.
– Regional Forces: Relatives such as Cao Ren and Cao Xiu oversaw key frontiers.

This structure appeared unshakable—until the curse of short lifespans struck the Cao family, paving the way for the Sima clan’s rise.

The Theater of Omens and Opportunism

### Prophecies and Propaganda
In March 220, a yellow dragon (symbolizing Earth, the element destined to replace Han’s Fire) was “sighted” in Cao Pi’s hometown. By April, a white pheasant—a rare auspicious sign—appeared in Raoxian. These staged omens justified the dynastic transition.

### The Case of Meng Da: A Turncoat’s Gamble
Meng Da, a Shu Han general, defected to Wei in June 220. His motives were pure opportunism:
– Background: His father, Meng Tuo, famously bribed his way into office during the Han.
– Betrayal: After clashing with Liu Feng (Liu Bei’s adopted son), Meng Da surrendered, bringing three strategic commanderies with him.

Cao Pi rewarded him lavishly, but Meng Da’s treachery would later backfire spectacularly when he attempted to defect back to Shu—only to be crushed by Sima Yi and Zhuge Liang.

The Final Act: The Abdication of Han

On October 220, Emperor Xian of Han formally abdicated, ceding the Mandate of Heaven to Cao Pi. The ceremony followed a carefully choreographed script:
1. The emperor reported his “failure” to the Han ancestral temple.
2. Officials presented the imperial seals to Cao Pi, who “reluctantly” accepted after three symbolic refusals.
3. Cao Pi ascended the throne at Fanyang, proclaiming the Wei dynasty.

For Liu Bei, this was a crisis: His legitimacy as “King of Hanzhong” was tied to the Han’s survival. His response? Declare himself emperor in 221, claiming to uphold Han’s legacy—a move that deepened the Three Kingdoms’ divide.

Legacy and Lessons

### Why the Three Kingdoms Endured
1. Cao Pi’s Missed Opportunities: His focus on ritual legitimacy over military expansion allowed Shu and Wu to regroup.
2. Institutional Flaws: The Nine-Rank System’s bias toward elites weakened Wei’s long-term stability.
3. The Human Factor: Short reigns (Cao Pi died at 40) and factional infighting doomed Cao Wei to eventual usurpation by the Sima family.

### Modern Parallels
– Elite Capture: The Nine-Rank System’s erosion of meritocracy mirrors modern debates over nepotism in institutions.
– Theater of Power: Cao Pi’s staged omens and abdication rituals find echoes in today’s political propaganda.

In the end, the deaths of Guan Yu and Cao Cao didn’t just close a chapter—they set the stage for a fragile equilibrium that would last decades, until the Jin Dynasty finally reunified China under Sima Yan. The late Three Kingdoms period, often overshadowed by its earlier drama, remains a masterclass in the interplay of ambition, legitimacy, and the limits of power.