From Prehistoric Origins to Bronze Age Refinement

The story of Chinese lacquerware begins in the mists of prehistory, where early artisans discovered the protective and decorative properties of tree sap. During the Neolithic period, when painted pottery dominated material culture, archaeologists like Wu Jinding proposed that resin-based coatings likely enhanced the iconic red-and-black designs of Yangshao culture ceramics. The Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) marked a turning point, as evidenced by lacquered chariot fittings and arrowheads excavated from royal tombs at Yinxu. Though no complete lacquer objects survive from this era, oracle bone inscriptions mentioning “six fish and one small turtle caught in nets” on black pottery shards from Longshan culture sites hint at lacquer’s early decorative applications.

What makes this ancient technology remarkable is its parallel development with China’s writing systems. As documentation shifted from oracle bones to bamboo slips during the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE), lacquer-based ink became the primary medium for recording history—a role it maintained until paper supplanted bamboo in the Eastern Han period (25-220 CE). The Shangshu (Book of Documents) records lacquer among tribute items from Yanzhou and Yuzhou provinces, while philosophical texts like Han Feizi describe how legendary rulers Yao and Shun used lacquered vessels, suggesting the material’s association with power and ritual.

The Golden Age of Warring States and Han Lacquer

The political fragmentation of the Warring States period (475-221 BCE) unexpectedly fueled lacquerware’s artistic zenith. Competing feudal states cultivated distinct regional styles, with Chu kingdom artisans (modern Hubei and Hunan) producing exquisite examples like the polychrome lacquer coffins from Xinyang and the whimsical deer-shaped vessels from Changsha tombs. Archaeological finds reveal sophisticated techniques: wooden cores wrapped in hemp cloth (zhima), layered lacquer applications, and inlaid mother-of-pearl decorations.

Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) lacquer production became industrialized, as recorded in Yantie Lun (Discourses on Salt and Iron): “The wealthy use silver-rimmed lacquerware with golden handles…middling families employ Shu-made cups with gold inlay.” Excavations of Han tombs in Korea’s Lelang commandery confirmed Sichuan’s status as the lacquer production hub, where assembly-line workshops employed specialized artisans for each production stage—woodworking, priming, painting, and gilding. A lacquer cup inscribed with “Made for His Majesty’s Imperial Use in the 2nd Year of Shiyuan” (85 BCE) exemplifies the era’s technical mastery, featuring delicate cloud-and-beast motifs that would influence later Chinese painting aesthetics.

Cultural Crossroads: Lacquer in Ritual and Daily Life

Beyond utilitarian functions, lacquer permeated Chinese life through:

– Funerary Practices: Han aristocracy received lacquered coffins as imperial gifts, like the “vermilion longevity vessel” bestowed upon General Liang Shang. The Hou Hanshu documents these lavish burials, where lacquer’s preservative qualities symbolized eternal protection.
– Military Applications: From lacquered armor in the Terracotta Army to waterproofed crossbow mechanisms, the technology safeguarded China’s warriors.
– Literary Connections: Zhuang Zhou’s appointment as “Supervisor of Lacquer Gardens” reflects the material’s economic importance, while Shiji records lacquer’s role in political theater—like the infamous story of Duke Xiang of Zhao lacquering his enemy’s skull as a drinking vessel.

The material’s versatility shone in domestic contexts too. Shishuo Xinyu (A New Account of Tales of the World) describes Jin Dynasty (266-420 CE) aristocrats using gold-lacquered washbasins, while Dongguan Jiushi (Records of the Eastern Palace) inventories over thirty lacquer items in imperial households, including wine vessels with delicate gold tracery.

Decline and Renaissance: From Tang Opulence to Ming Mastery

The collapse of Han unity disrupted lacquer production, as Cao Cao’s memorials lament the scarcity of quality lacquerware during the Three Kingdoms period. By the Jin Dynasty (266-420), strict regulations governed production: “Those wishing to sell lacquerware must register with officials and mark finished pieces with vermilion inscriptions.” The infamous execution of artisan Xiao Tan for creating unauthorized silver-inlaid lacquer demonstrates the craft’s political sensitivity.

Tang Dynasty (618-907) artisans revived the art through pingtuo—an intricate technique embedding gold and silver foils beneath translucent lacquer layers. Surviving examples in Japan’s Shōsōin Repository reveal astonishing precision, like harp bodies adorned with floral motifs finer than human hair.

The Southern Song (1127-1279) witnessed geographic shifts, as production centers moved to Jiaxing and Hangzhou. Wulin Jiushi (Old Affairs of Wulin) records specialized “gold lacquer workshops” in Lin’an (modern Hangzhou), while literati like Zhu Zundu compiled technical manuals—though only Xiushi Lu (Records of Lacquer Decoration) by Huang Dacheng survives from the Ming era.

Ming (1368-1644) artisans achieved global renown, with Yang Hui craftsmen developing signature styles:
– Zhang Cheng’s carved red lacquer (tihong) boxes
– Yang Mao’s gold-sprinkled (qiangjin) designs
– Yang Xun’s Japanese-inspired “Yang-style” lacquer

The late Ming saw technical innovations like Zhou Zhu’s stone-and-ivory inlays, paving the way for Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) masterpieces. Lu Kuisheng’s sandalwood-core lacquerware exemplified refined minimalism, contrasting with the ornate bianxiang (decorated lacquer) screens favored by Emperor Qianlong.

Lacquer’s Living Legacy

Today, Chinese lacquerware stands at a crossroads between tradition and innovation. Modern artisans in Fujian and Sichuan preserve ancient techniques while experimenting with sustainable materials—echoing lacquer’s ancient role as China’s most enduring artistic medium. As museums worldwide showcase Warring States zhuqi (vermilion lacquer) and Tang pingtuo, scholars increasingly recognize lacquerware as vital to understanding China’s material culture—a thread connecting Neolithic artisans to contemporary designers in an unbroken chain of creativity.

The challenge remains: to write lacquer’s history not as a footnote to ceramics or bronzes, but as a central narrative in China’s cultural odyssey—one where tree sap shaped empires, preserved memories, and continues to inspire across seven millennia.