From Firewood to Coal: A Fuel Revolution in Northern Song China

The bustling streets of Kaifeng, the Northern Song capital, were not just filled with merchants and scholars—they were also powered by an energy revolution. At the dawn of the 12th century, two laborers driving coal-laden donkeys into the city (as depicted in the famous Along the River During the Qingming Festival painting) represented a seismic shift in Chinese domestic life. While wood and charcoal remained common, coal had become the dominant fuel source for Bianliang’s million households.

Contemporary accounts reveal this transformation. Southern Song scholar Zhuang Zhuo nostalgically recalled: “In old Bianjing, several million households all relied on coal—not a single family burned firewood.” Though likely exaggerated, archaeological evidence confirms coal’s widespread adoption. Government records show over twenty state-run coal yards operated in the capital, with the commodity becoming so valuable that authorities monopolized its trade. Historian Wang Zengyu’s research traces this transition—while early Northern Song residents primarily used wood, by Emperor Shenzong’s reign (1067-1085), coal dominated urban fuel consumption.

The Geography of Energy: Regional Fuel Variations

China’s fuel landscape during the Song period followed distinct regional patterns:

– North China: Coal became the standard for heating and industries like iron-smelting
– South China: Wood charcoal remained predominant
– Sichuan: Innovated with bamboo charcoal

Poetic accounts describe Shaanxi’s Yanzhou enveloped in coal smoke, while Su Shi (better known as Su Dongpo) famously discovered coal deposits during his governorship in Xuzhou, celebrating the find with verse: “Who knew the mountains hid such treasure—black as ten thousand cartloads of charcoal!” His discovery provided crucial winter fuel for freezing residents.

Luxury Coal and Early Industrial Applications

Beyond basic fuel, Song entrepreneurs developed value-added coal products:

– Scented coal cakes: Perfumed briquettes that burned slowly with pleasant aromas, used in scholar’s studios and as elite gifts
– Industrial uses: Coal-fired kilns for ceramics and blast furnaces for iron production

The era also saw pioneering use of other hydrocarbons. In Shaanxi, people extracted petroleum (a term coined by polymath Shen Kuo), while Sichuanese salt producers tapped natural gas from “fire wells,” doubling production efficiency.

The Matchstick Precursor: Song Dynasty “Fire Sticks”

Long before Swedish matchmakers, Song households used ingenious lighting tools:

– Fazhu (发烛): Sulfur-tipped pine sticks that ignited when touched to embers
– Alternative names: “Light-summoning slave,” “Fire-inch,” or “Kindling”

These proto-matches appeared in markets alongside other daily goods, as recorded in Old Affairs of Wulin. Though not self-igniting like modern matches, they revolutionized nighttime lighting. Northern Song scholar Tao Gu described their convenience: “When nighttime emergencies arise, lighting lamps feels agonizingly slow. But wise men prepare pine splints dipped in sulfur—meet them with fire, and flames leap up!”

By Southern Song, Hangzhou artisans refined the design into paper-thin wood strips with precise sulfur application. Some scholars speculate later versions may have achieved friction ignition—potentially predating European matches by centuries.

Urban Living: Housing Markets in Song Cities

The Qingming Scroll reveals stark housing disparities—thatched rural dwellings gave way to tile-roofed suburban homes, then to multi-story urban compounds. Japanese pilgrim Jōjin’s 1072 account marveled at Hangzhou’s continuous tile roofs and imposing gate towers.

Key housing trends emerged:

– Rental economy: Even high officials like Chancellor Han Qi rented homes
– Government involvement: “Building Management Offices” controlled thousands of public housing units
– Price variations: Monthly rents ranged from 430 cash for public housing to dozens of strings of cash for premium private units

Remarkably progressive policies included five rent-free days for new tenants to settle in—a consideration rarely seen in modern rentals.

The Furniture Revolution: How Chairs Changed Chinese Etiquette

The Song witnessed a postural revolution as high furniture replaced floor mats:

– Pre-Song norms: Kneeling on floor mats was standard, with “barbarian beds” (huchuang) being rare luxuries
– Song innovations: Widespread adoption of chairs, backrests, and footrests

This shift dramatically altered social rituals. Ancient ceremonial kowtows—natural when rising from seated positions—gave way to standing bows among equals. As Ming scholar Gu Yanwu noted, Yuan Dynasty rulers later reintroduced kneeling as a submissive gesture, a practice the Qing intensified. Song patriot Wen Tianxiang’s defiance—refusing to kneel before Mongol officials—epitomized how chairs had transformed body language norms.

Legacy of a Practical Age

The Song Dynasty’s energy solutions and domestic innovations reveal a society prioritizing convenience and efficiency. From coal heating that predated European adoption by centuries to rental markets resembling modern systems, these developments challenge stereotypes of “backward” pre-modern life. As we face contemporary energy transitions, the pragmatic Song approach—balancing state management with private enterprise—offers timeless lessons in sustainable urbanization.

The true marvel lies not in any single invention, but in how ordinary Song citizens experienced these advancements daily—warming their homes with coal briquettes, lighting lamps with proto-matches, and debating politics while seated comfortably in chairs. In these mundane details, we glimpse the foundations of modern living taking shape eight centuries ago.