The Great Debate Over China’s Earliest Writing System

For nearly a century, scholars have grappled with a fundamental question about one of China’s most important ancient civilizations. The Erlitou culture (1900-1500 BCE), often associated with the legendary Xia dynasty, stands at the threshold of Chinese recorded history. But did this sophisticated Bronze Age society possess a true writing system? This question strikes at the heart of understanding China’s cultural origins.

Early 20th century scholars like Tang Lan boldly proposed that writing existed as early as the Xia dynasty’s founding. The influential Guo Moruo went further, suggesting that markings on Neolithic Yangshao and Longshan pottery represented the embryonic stages of Chinese characters. Yet skepticism persists among some researchers who point to the absence of mature “six principles” writing like the later Shang oracle bones as evidence that Erlitou relied on simpler recording methods like knotted cords, carved wood, or pictorial symbols.

Tracing the Roots: Precursors to Chinese Writing

The story of Chinese writing begins long before Erlitou. At the 9000-year-old Jiahu site in Henan, turtle shells bear mysterious carved symbols from the Peiligang culture. Yangshao pottery (5000-3000 BCE) displays various markings that may represent early attempts at symbolic communication. The Dawenkou culture (4100-2600 BCE) produced pottery vessels with complex signs interpreted by some as clan emblems, religious symbols, or primitive writing.

Several remarkable discoveries suggest writing was emerging across multiple Neolithic cultures:

– The Dinggong site in Shandong yielded an 11-character inscription on Longshan pottery (2600-2000 BCE)
– A late Longshan period pottery flask from Taosi bears a vermilion-painted character strikingly similar to later oracle bone script
– The Wangchenggang site produced a single character that some scholars identify as “gong,” potentially dating to the Xia period
– Longqiuzhuang in Jiangsu revealed additional pottery inscriptions from the Longshan era

These widespread examples demonstrate that by the Longshan period, various forms of proto-writing were developing across northern China, making the existence of writing in the subsequent Erlitou culture highly probable.

The Erlitou Evidence: Between Symbols and True Writing

At Erlitou sites, archaeologists have uncovered numerous “incised symbols” on pottery vessels, particularly along the rims of large-mouthed zun jars and rolled-rim basins. Unlike decorative motifs, these marks were clearly added after firing, often with multiple strokes visible. Their placement suggests some served practical purposes – perhaps ownership marks for communal vessels. However, several appear to represent early characters:

– Simple numerals (one through eight)
– Pictographs for natural objects (plants, mountains)
– Representations of tools and artifacts
– Symbols resembling later Chinese characters for wood, grain, arrows, wells, and walls

Comparative analysis reveals striking similarities between these Erlitou symbols and later Shang dynasty characters. For example, the Erlitou “well” character closely matches its oracle bone counterpart. The discovery of similar pottery inscriptions at Shangxian’s Zijing site indicates these symbols enjoyed regional circulation.

Why No Lengthy Erlitou Texts? The Preservation Paradox

The absence of extended Erlitou inscriptions puzzles scholars, but several factors likely explain this:

1. Literacy Limitations: Writing may have been restricted to a small elite class
2. Preservation Challenges: Organic writing materials like bamboo slips rarely survive
3. Ritual Context: Important texts may have been buried in undiscovered royal tombs

As scholar Chen Mengjia noted, the sophisticated Shang oracle bones must have developed over centuries, implying writing existed by 2000 BCE. Ancient texts like the “Book of Documents” reference Shang ancestors possessing written records before conquering Xia, suggesting Xia dynasty literacy.

The Artifact Connection: Writing Through Material Culture

Shang oracle bones and bronze inscriptions preserve ancient character forms that may date to Erlitou times. Some vessel pictographs depict artifacts no longer used in the late Shang period:

– A “jue” vessel character shows the distinctive shape of Erlitou-era tripods
– The “you” character may represent large-mouthed zun jars common in Erlitou but rare later
– Other vessel pictographs mirror artifacts that disappeared after early Shang

As archaeologist Su Bingqi observed, pictographic characters necessarily reflect contemporary objects, meaning some Shang characters likely preserve much older Erlitou-era forms.

Religious Life and Symbolic Communication

Beyond potential writing, Erlitou’s rich ritual culture reveals complex symbolic systems:

Divination Practices:
– Oracle bones (mostly animal scapulae without the inscriptions found later)
– Specially prepared bovine bones showing scorch marks
– Ritual turtle shells, some cinnabar-coated

Animal Symbolism:
– Ceramic toads (possibly architectural ornaments with ritual significance)
– Turtle imagery (continuing Neolithic traditions of turtle shell rituals)
– Owl representations (foreshadowing Shang bronze motifs)
– Dragon depictions in various media (ceramic, bronze, stone)

Ancestor Worship:
– Stone phalluses suggesting fertility cults
– Possible ancestral temples (like Palace Complex No. 2 with its central tomb)
– Elaborate ritual platforms (circular altars and rectangular “kan” spaces)

Musical Ritual:
– Ceramic drum models
– Lacquered drums
– Bronze and ceramic bells
– Stone chimes (qing)
– Ocarinas (xun)

These sophisticated religious practices imply corresponding developments in symbolic communication, potentially including writing for ritual purposes.

Conclusion: Erlitou’s Place in the History of Chinese Writing

While no extended Erlitou texts have yet been discovered, the cumulative evidence strongly suggests this culture stood at a critical juncture in the development of Chinese writing. The combination of:

1. Widespread Neolithic proto-writing traditions
2. Erlitou’s own symbolic markings showing character-like features
3. Shang characters that appear to preserve Erlitou-era forms
4. Historical texts referencing pre-Shang writing
5. The culture’s advanced administrative and ritual needs

All point toward Erlitou possessing at least a rudimentary writing system. Future discoveries may yet reveal the missing links between Neolithic symbols and mature Shang script, potentially confirming Erlitou as the cradle of Chinese writing. For now, these tantalizing clues continue to challenge and inspire scholars seeking to understand China’s earliest civilizations.