The Turbulent World of Early Tang China

In the autumn of 627 CE, during the first year of Emperor Taizong’s Zhenguan reign period, disaster struck the Central Plains of Tang China. An unseasonable frost destroyed crops across the region, leaving fields barren and communities destitute. The newly established Tang Dynasty, still recovering from Eastern Turkic invasions, lacked resources for large-scale relief efforts. Imperial authorities made the difficult decision to permit famine victims to “seek abundance elsewhere,” effectively sanctioning mass migration in search of survival.

Among these desperate travelers walked a determined Buddhist monk named Xuanzang. At twenty-seven years old, this scholarly cleric had already earned respect as a Tripitaka Master through years of scriptural study. Yet he remained deeply dissatisfied with existing Chinese translations of Buddhist texts, recognizing both inaccuracies in available works and the absence of crucial scriptures never transmitted to China. These concerns planted the seed of an extraordinary ambition – to journey westward to Buddhism’s Indian homeland in search of authentic teachings.

Defying Imperial Edicts for Spiritual Truth

The political climate made Xuanzang’s proposed journey extraordinarily dangerous. The fledgling Tang state remained locked in conflict with Turkic tribes along its northern frontiers. Fearing collusion between subjects and external enemies, the government imposed strict travel restrictions. When Xuanzang’s formal request for official travel documents was denied, he made the fateful decision to embark as an undocumented traveler – effectively becoming an outlaw in the eyes of the state.

This act of civil disobedience set in motion one of history’s most remarkable overland expeditions. Xuanzang would spend three years traversing over 12,000 miles through approximately 128 kingdoms and territories. His route took him through the shifting landscapes of the medieval Silk Road – where the once-great city of Loulan had been abandoned, and the Tang’s Jade Gate frontier post had retreated eastward to Guazhou, some 200 kilometers from Dunhuang.

Surviving the Deadly Taklamakan Crossing

The northern route into Central Asia led through the terrifying Moheyanqi Desert (modern Gobi), a wasteland where “no birds flew above and no beasts ran below.” Travelers faced shifting sandstorms that blotted out the sun, alternating between furnace-like days and bone-chilling nights. Xuanzang’s crossing began disastrously when he lost his way and accidentally spilled his precious water supply. For five agonizing days and nights he marched without water before finding an oasis, an experience he later described in the Records of the Western Regions as “hardships beyond complete recounting.”

This harrowing passage marked just the first of many mortal challenges. After reaching Hami (then under Western Turkic control), Xuanzang altered his planned northern route along the Tianshan Mountains due to an invitation from King Qu Wentai of Gaochang. This detour would prove fortuitous, connecting him with two crucial patrons who enabled his journey’s success.

Royal Patrons and the Silk Road’s Power Brokers

Gaochang (modern Turpan) occupied a strategic position along Central Asian trade routes. Its Buddhist ruler Qu Wentai provided extraordinary support – assigning four novice monks and twenty-five attendants to accompany Xuanzang, along with lavish funding estimated sufficient for twenty years of travel. Most importantly, the king drafted twenty-four letters of introduction (each accompanied by fine silk) to rulers along the route, including a crucial missive to Western Turkic Khagan Tong Yabghu.

With Gaochang escorts, Xuanzang traveled westward through Yanqi (Karashahr), Kucha, and Aksu before attempting to cross the Tianshan’s Bedel Pass in winter. The glacial crossing proved catastrophic – seven days of traversing deep snow and ice claimed over two-thirds of his party. Survivors emerged with severe frostbite, likely having endured avalanches that Xuanzang described poetically as “attacks by snow dragons.”

Documenting Central Asia’s Forgotten Kingdoms

Emerging in the Issyk-Kul region (modern Kyrgyzstan), Xuanzang became the first Chinese to document this immense alpine lake, noting its “azure-black waters blending salty and bitter flavors” that never froze despite the harsh climate. His meticulous observations in the Records of the Western Regions would later guide 19th century archaeologists like Alexander Cunningham and Aurel Stein in rediscovering lost Central Asian civilizations.

The monk’s path led next to Suyab, the Western Turkic capital near modern Tokmok. Here in 628 CE, armed with King Qu’s letter, Xuanzang gained audience with the powerful Tong Yabghu. The khagan’s court astonished the pilgrim – the ruler wore green silk robes with a dramatic ten-foot headscarf trailing behind, surrounded by 200 noblemen in braided hair and brocade garments. Despite Tang-Turkic tensions, the khagan provided safe passage funds and dispatched escorts with letters guaranteeing Xuanzang’s protection throughout Turkic domains.

The Scholar’s Detour Through Transoxiana

With Turkic support, Xuanzang embarked on an unprecedented scholarly detour through Sogdiana’s riverine civilizations rather than proceeding directly to India. His circuitous route documented urban centers like Tashkent, Samarkand, and Bukhara, reaching the edge of the Aral Sea region (known to Tang chroniclers as the “Thunder Reservoir Sea”). At the Iron Gates pass (modern Chaqchar Pass in Uzbekistan), he recorded the dramatic landscape where “sheer cliffs flanked the narrow path, their iron-hued stone creating impregnable barriers.”

In Afghanistan, Xuanzang left history’s first description of the Bamiyan Buddhas – “a standing stone Buddha northeast of the capital, 140-150 feet tall, gleaming gold with magnificent jeweled decorations.” His account would become crucial for understanding these monuments destroyed in 2001. Finally, in late summer 628, after crossing the Hindu Kush (“Black Mountains” in his records), Xuanzang entered the Indian subcontinent.

The Indian Sojourn and Scholarly Triumph

Xuanzang’s seventeen-year Indian odyssey took him across northern, central and southern regions, with extended study at Nalanda Monastery – the Oxford of medieval Buddhism. His records preserve invaluable details, like the description of Vulture Peak near Rajgir: “A solitary spur resembling both a roosting vulture and high platform, where hues of empty green interplay with dense shadows.” He noted the ancient stone staircase built by King Bimbisara, which modern pilgrims still use (alongside new cable cars) to reach the summit where “a brick monastery stands at the western cliff, its eastern door framing a life-sized Buddha image.”

Xuanzang’s geographical insights were groundbreaking – identifying India as a triangular subcontinent “bordered by seas on three sides, backed by snowy mountains, broad in the north and tapering southward like a crescent moon.” His ethnography documented India’s caste system, Jain ascetics (“sky-clad” naked monks), and Shaivite “ash-smeared” holy men wearing garlands of human bones. The monk even recorded India’s unique judicial practices, including trial by ordeal involving hot irons, weighted scales, and poison tests.

The Homecoming and Enduring Legacy

In 645 CE, after refusing Indian rulers’ pleas to stay, Xuanzang returned via the southern Silk Road through Khotan, carrying 657 scripture bundles in 520 cases. His triumphant Chang’an reception contrasted starkly with his furtive departure – Emperor Taizong personally summoned him to Luoyang, commissioning the Records of the Western Regions. This 120,000-character masterpiece described 141 countries (128 visited personally), becoming medieval Asia’s most important geographical work.

Xuanzang’s legacy transcends religious history. His precise geographical notations guided 19th century archaeologists in reconstructing Central Asia’s forgotten civilizations. The monk’s linguistic contributions revolutionized Chinese Buddhist terminology, while his travel narrative inspired generations of writers, including the classic Journey to the West. Today, as China’s Belt and Road Initiative revives ancient connections, Xuanzang stands as a timeless symbol of cultural exchange – a scholar whose pursuit of truth transcended political boundaries and whose records continue illuminating our shared Eurasian heritage.