Introduction: The Rise and Reach of the Qing Empire

In the 18th century, the Qing dynasty of China reached the zenith of its territorial expansion, extending its borders to what was traditionally considered the geographical limits of China. This era followed the decisive collapse of the Dzungar Khanate and the suppression of the Ili region’s local rulers. The Qing Empire’s growing power resonated across Eurasia, influencing political dynamics far beyond its immediate borders.

Among the many groups affected by Qing ascendancy was the Torgut tribe, a branch of the Oirat Mongols, whose centuries-old nomadic existence was deeply intertwined with the shifting geopolitics of Central Asia. Their storied migration from the steppes near modern-day Kazakhstan and Xinjiang to the lower Volga River and back to the Qing frontier stands as one of the last great nomadic movements in world history.

The Torgut Tribe: Origins and Historical Background

The Torgut tribe was part of the Oirat confederation, a coalition of western Mongol tribes. The Oirats themselves descended from the once mighty Warlord Empire , which had dominated the Mongolian Plateau and beyond during the late medieval period. At their height, the Warlord Empire controlled vast expanses of territory stretching thousands of miles across the Eurasian steppe, and their influence was felt from the deserts of the north to the eastern borders of China.

One of the most famous figures from this era was Esen Taishi, a powerful warlord who once even captured the Ming Emperor Yingzong during the Tumu Crisis of 1449. Esen’s dominance was unparalleled; the Warlord Empire was then considered unchallenged across the Mongolian heartlands. However, after Esen’s death, the empire fragmented, and the rise of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty further diminished the power of the Oirat tribes.

The Torguts, amid internal Oirat conflicts and external pressure from the expanding Dzungar Khanate, found their living space increasingly constrained. Traditionally nomadic pastoralists, the Torguts roamed the borderlands between what is now Xinjiang and Kazakhstan. But the growing might of the Dzungars forced the Torguts to consider new homelands.

The Migration Westward: From Central Asia to the Volga

Facing pressure from the Dzungar expansion and the encroaching Kazakh tribes, the Torgut leader, Ubasi Khan, led a monumental migration westward across the Eurasian steppe. This journey took the tribe across the Kazakh grasslands and over the Ural River, eventually settling near the lower Volga River in what is now southwestern Russia.

The migration was no small feat. The Torguts moved with their families, livestock, and belongings—an immense undertaking for any nomadic group. Over several years, they established a new polity known as the Torgut Khanate along the Volga’s lower reaches. This new homeland allowed the Torguts to maintain their nomadic lifestyle, albeit under the shadow of Russian imperial ambitions.

The Russian Empire’s Rising Influence and the Torguts’ Subjugation

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Russian Empire was rapidly expanding eastward and southward, asserting control over vast territories around the Volga and beyond. The Torgut Khanate, situated in this volatile frontier region, found itself increasingly caught between imperial powers.

Initially, the Torguts became vassals of the Russian Empire. However, Russian policies toward nomadic peoples were often harsh and extractive. During Russia’s ongoing wars with the Ottoman Empire, the Tsarist regime conscripted large numbers of Torgut horsemen to serve as frontline troops. These warriors often served as cannon fodder, leading to a dramatic decline in the Torgut population.

Russian official records from the late 17th century estimate that the Torgut Khanate had around 70,000 yurts but by the 18th century, this number had dwindled to just over 40,000. This loss represented nearly half of the tribe’s population, a devastating blow to the community’s vitality and cohesion.

The Struggle for Autonomy Under Russian Rule

Beyond population losses, the Torguts faced political subjugation. The Russian authorities sought to erode the traditional power of the Torgut khans by imposing administrative reforms that placed the tribe under direct Russian control. The Tsar appointed officials to oversee the Torgut council , effectively stripping the khan of real authority.

For Ubasi Khan and the Torgut nobility, these measures were intolerable. The imposition of Russian administration over their lands was tantamount to losing sovereignty and identity. The Torguts were no longer masters of their own fate, and their lands risked being absorbed as mere Russian provinces.

The Great Return: Planning the Eastward Migration

In 1770, Ubasi Khan convened a secret council of Torgut nobles to discuss a daring plan: to break free from Russian control and return eastward to the Qing Empire. This decision was fueled by a desire to reclaim their ancestral lands and escape the encroachment of Russian imperialism.

However, orchestrating such a massive migration was fraught with difficulties. The Torguts had lived near the Volga for over a century; their population numbered around 170,000 people spread across both banks of the river—about 30,000 households. Moving entire families, herds, and possessions across thousands of miles was a logistical nightmare.

Moreover, the Russian authorities were vigilant. The Torgut intentions could not be concealed for long. Once their plans were discovered, Ubasi Khan decided to act swiftly, leading the larger contingent of about 30,000 households from the right bank of the Volga on the arduous journey eastward, leaving behind approximately 10,000 households on the left bank.

The Symbolic Break: Burning the Khan’s Palace

On November 20, 1770, Ubasi Khan took a dramatic and symbolic step to cement the tribe’s commitment to their journey. In front of the assembled Torgut community, he ordered the burning of the khan’s palace. This act was a powerful declaration that there would be no turning back—the Torguts were resolute in their determination to return to their ancestral homeland under Qing protection.

This moment marked the beginning of one of the most remarkable migrations in Eurasian history—a trek spanning over 10,000 kilometers across hostile terrain, pursued relentlessly by Russian forces.

Pursuit and Battles Along the Route

The Russian Empire, under Empress Catherine the Great, was unwilling to let the Torguts slip away so easily. The Tsar dispatched large Cossack cavalry forces to intercept the migrants, aiming to block their path at strategic choke points such as the Orenburg Gate .

The Torguts, led by Ubasi Khan, engaged in fierce battles with the pursuing Russian Cossacks. While detailed accounts of these engagements are scarce, it is known that Ubasi employed classic Mongol cavalry tactics, including flanking maneuvers, to defeat Russian forces in these skirmishes. Despite tactical victories, the Torgut losses were severe—approximately 10,000 warriors fell in direct combat.

Exhausted and depleted, the Torgut caravan pressed onward but soon found themselves surrounded by a substantial force of about 50,000 Kazakh warriors near the settlement of Muyinta. In a desperate breakout attempt, Ubasi led his people through the siege, but the effort resulted in further heavy casualties, with nearly 10,000 Torguts lost to the encirclement.

The Human Cost and Final Arrival in Qing Territory

The migration exacted a staggering human toll. From an original population of approximately 170,000, the Torgut suffered losses of nearly 100,000 men, women, and children through battle, disease, and hardship over the seven months of travel.

Yet, despite the immense suffering, the survivors reached their destination in July 1771 along the Ili River, a tributary of the larger Charin River within Qing territory. Their arrival was not only a physical relocation but also a political and cultural reintegration into the Qing imperial order.

Qing-Russian Relations and the Torgut Legacy

The return of the Torgut Mongols had significant diplomatic repercussions. The Russian Empire formally communicated the situation to the Qing court, marking a new chapter in Qing-Russian relations. The Qing dynasty welcomed the Torguts back, incorporating them into its frontier defense system and granting them a degree of autonomy under imperial oversight.

The Torgut migration is remembered as one of the last great nomadic movements, symbolizing the resilience of nomadic cultures amid the expanding empires of Eurasia. Their journey highlighted the complex interplay between imperial ambitions, ethnic identity, and survival strategies of steppe peoples.

Conclusion: The End of an Era and the Transformation of the Steppe

The story of the Torgut Mongols encapsulates the dramatic transformations of the 18th-century Eurasian steppe. It illustrates how indigenous nomadic societies adapted—or were compelled to adapt—to the rising power of centralized states like the Qing and Russian empires.

This migration was more than a physical journey; it represented the struggle to preserve cultural identity and autonomy in a rapidly changing world. The Torguts’ epic return stands as a testament to human endurance, the shifting tides of imperial power, and the enduring legacy of the great nomadic civilizations that shaped Eurasian history.