Introduction: The Triumph of the Republican Faction
The late 19th century marked a decisive period in French history, witnessing the definitive victory of republican forces over monarchist factions. This triumph was not merely a political victory but a profound transformation that shifted France from what had been labeled a “conservative republic” to a true “republican republic.” The Third Republic, which emerged after years of struggle and uncertainty, was no longer a fragile compromise but a political system firmly under the control of republican ideals and governance.
Yet, this republican victory was not monolithic. Within the victorious camp itself, divisions existed, reflecting differing visions for the future of France. The republicans were broadly split into two main groups: the moderates and the radicals. These factions differed markedly in their social bases, political strategies, and visions for both domestic and foreign policy. The period from 1879 to 1899 was dominated predominantly by the moderates, who laid the foundations for the parliamentary republic and pursued a cautious but firm agenda of secularization and educational reform.
The Republican Divide: Moderates and Radicals
Although the republican faction had united to defeat the monarchists, underlying divisions soon emerged. The moderate republicans represented the upper-middle bourgeoisie, advocating a careful and incremental consolidation of the republican regime. Their priority was maintaining social stability and preserving the order of bourgeois society, which they viewed as essential for France’s prosperity.
In contrast, the radical republicans, often drawing support from the petite bourgeoisie and more progressive social elements, pushed for sweeping social reforms and more extensive democratic freedoms. They also took a hardline stance on foreign policy, favoring demands for revenge against Germany after the humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and opposing colonial adventures.
The moderates, however, held sway in French politics for two decades. Their dominance shaped the republic’s character, emphasizing parliamentary governance, secularism, and cautious modernization.
Establishing a Parliamentary Republic
One of the most significant achievements of the moderate republicans was the establishment of France as a typical parliamentary republic. Under their leadership, the presidency, once a powerful institution capable of challenging parliament, was relegated to a largely ceremonial role. The real power resided with the legislature, which not only held legislative authority but also controlled the executive branch.
The government was now directly accountable to parliament. Cabinets were formed based on parliamentary majorities and could be dismissed by parliamentary votes of no confidence. This system ensured that the republic operated under parliamentary supremacy, a hallmark of modern democratic governance.
The Challenge of Secularization: The Role of the Catholic Church
Perhaps the most pressing challenge facing the new republic was the entrenched power of the Catholic Church in French society, especially in education. France was historically known as the “eldest daughter of the Church,” reflecting the deep-rooted influence of Catholicism. Under the Second Empire, this influence had expanded notably, particularly in the cultural and educational spheres.
The Church had leveraged laws on educational freedom, such as the 1850 education law, to establish numerous church-run schools. Moreover, clergy were active in public schools, shaping the minds of young French citizens and reinforcing the Church’s values. This dominance was seen as a direct threat to republican ideals and secular governance.
Republicans viewed the Church as a bastion of the old regime and an obstacle to republican progress. During the “conservative republic” phase, clerical forces had been emboldened, and bishops frequently denounced the republic from their pulpits. Monarchists considered the Church a last stronghold of the ancien régime and a key opponent of republicanism.
Jules Ferry and the Educational Reforms
The decisive moment of republican secularization arrived with Jules Ferry, the education minister and later prime minister, whose reforms would reshape French society. Beginning in 1879, Ferry launched a series of bold legislative initiatives aimed at wresting control of education from the Church and establishing a secular, state-controlled system.
On March 15, 1879, Ferry proposed two critical bills. The first aimed to remove all Catholic clergy from the highest educational governing bodies, including the National Education Supreme Council and academic committees. The second sought to amend the 1875 higher education law to prohibit private schools from using the term “university,” revoke their authority to grant degrees, and centralize degree examinations in state institutions.
Ferry also drafted a broader education reform bill that included a clause dissolving the Jesuit order, which had been particularly influential in French education. Other religious groups were required to obtain official approval to operate schools, and unauthorized religious education was banned.
These measures provoked fierce opposition from Catholic groups, who organized mass protests and demonstrations, especially after the expulsion of Jesuit priests from many regions.
The Consolidation of Secular Education: Laws of 1881-1882
In 1881 and 1882, under Ferry’s leadership as both prime minister and education minister, the French parliament enacted landmark laws that would define the country’s educational system for generations.
These laws mandated compulsory education for children aged 7 to 13, ensuring that all French children received schooling. Education was to be secular and free of charge, with funding provided by local and national taxes. This established the three core principles of French primary education: compulsory attendance, secularism, and free access.
The laws also introduced civic education, designed to instill republican values and patriotism among students. Religious instruction, previously pervasive within schools, was relegated to outside-class activities, breaking the Church’s longstanding monopoly on education.
Impact on Gender and Society
Another significant aspect of Ferry’s reforms was the focus on female education. Historically, Catholic institutions had dominated girls’ schooling, often imparting traditional and religious values. By expanding secular education for girls beyond the elementary level, the republicans sought to break the Church’s hold on female education and promote a more egalitarian and secular upbringing.
This shift had broader societal implications, contributing to the gradual transformation of gender roles and expectations in France. Access to secular education empowered women and young girls with knowledge and perspectives that would fuel future social and political changes.
The Cultural Significance of Republican Secularism
The republican regime’s emphasis on secular education was not merely a policy decision but a cultural revolution. By removing the Church’s influence from schools, the republicans aimed to foster a new generation of citizens loyal to republican ideals rather than religious dogma.
This secularization was part of a broader project to modernize France and align it with Enlightenment principles of reason, citizenship, and democracy. The education reforms helped to create a shared national identity based on civic virtue and republican patriotism.
The Legacy of the Moderate Republican Era
The period from 1879 to 1899 was foundational for the French Third Republic. Under moderate republican rule and with leaders like Jules Ferry at the helm, France became a firmly established parliamentary democracy with a clear commitment to secularism.
The educational reforms laid the groundwork for a modern, egalitarian society and diminished the political power of the Catholic Church. Though conflicts between republicans and clerical forces persisted, the republic had decisively asserted its authority over one of the most important aspects of national life.
This era also set the stage for France’s expanding colonial ambitions, pursued more by the moderate republicans than their radical counterparts, reflecting the complex interplay of domestic politics and foreign policy.
Conclusion
The moderate republican dominance of the late 19th century was a transformative epoch in French history. By establishing parliamentary supremacy, secularizing education, and limiting clerical influence, the republicans redefined France’s political and cultural landscape. Jules Ferry’s educational reforms stand as a testament to the republic’s commitment to modernity, democracy, and secular citizenship. These changes would resonate well into the 20th century, shaping the identity and governance of modern France.